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Bio > Exam 3 review > Flashcards

Exam 3 review Flashcards

1
Q

hyperosmotic

A

when the concentration of solutes is higher in the environment , so water flows out of the tissues into the environment (seawater)

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2
Q

hyposmotic

A

when the concentration of solutes is higher in the tissues, so water flows from the environment into the tissues (freshwater)

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3
Q

Osmoregulation in marine environment

A

lose water by osmosis and gain electrolytes by diffusion

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4
Q

Osmoregulation in freshwater environment

A

gain water by osmosis and lose electrolytes by diffusion

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5
Q

Aquaporins

A

channels specifically for water, speed up the process of water movement

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6
Q

Spiracles

A

close to decrease water loss by evaporation in insects

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7
Q

Nephron structure/kidney function

A
  1. renal corpuscle, blood filtration, filter ions, nutrients, waste, and water out
  2. proximal tubule, reabsorb nutrients, ions, water from step 1 into blood
  3. loop of Henle, in medulla of nephron, gradient with fluid around loop, most reabsorbed water and salt
  4. distal tube, reabsorb what is needed by body
  5. collection duct, may reabsorb water, urea excretion
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8
Q

As kidneys filter

A

everything gets dumped out and the body reabsorbs what it needs

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9
Q

Loop of Henle gradient

A

want to keep a difference of 200 in ascending (200 less than outside) by pumping out sodium in ascending and equilibrate in descending

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10
Q

water regulation (ADH)

A
  • controlled by hormones, done in collecting duct and distal tube
  • ie Antidiuretic hormone -> decreases urine and triggers aquaporin insertion
  • ADH->collecting duct->aquaporin->increase water->peritubular capillary
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11
Q

Gases we exchange and how

A
  • oxygen = inhale

- carbon dioxide = exhale

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12
Q

partial pressure

A

pressure of one specific gas in a mixture

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13
Q

How to calculate pressure

A

Ptotal=Pa+Pb+Pc

percent of gas x total pressure

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14
Q

Animal adaptation for O2

A
  • gills
  • operculum
  • ram ventilation
  • spiracles
  • trachea
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15
Q

gills

A

larger SA for gas diffusion

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16
Q

operculum

A

cover gills, move back and forth to help pull water over gills

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17
Q

ram ventilation

A

no operculum, gill slits, have to constantly move to get oxygen, open mouth

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18
Q

spiracles

A

openings on the outside of the body, can close to decrease water loss, have no lungs, not through blood

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19
Q

insect trachea

A

branch and carry gas everywhere, place gas exchange with tissue, CO2 out through trachea

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20
Q

vertebrate lung structure

A

trachea–>bronchi–>bronchioles–>alveoli

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21
Q

trachea

A

branch away from esophagus into 2 bronchi

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22
Q

bronchi

A

branch into smaller bronchioles

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23
Q

bronchioles

A

spread in lung and branch into alveoli

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24
Q

alveoli

A

smallest bronchioles, allow for gas exchange between lungs and capillaries, sacs full of air

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25
Q

How does gas exchange between respiratory and circulatory

A

alveoli are surrounded by capillaries and have folds to increase SA, they exchange CO2 and O2 with capillaries by diffusion

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26
Q

negative pressure ventilation

A
  • what humans have
  • air is pulled into the body when the diaphragm contracts (volume increase)
  • pressure of the chest cavity is less than atmosphere to keep lungs from collapsing
  • humans adjust pressure based on volume when we in/exhale
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27
Q

ventilation control

A
  • controlled by brain
  • increased CO2 increases hydrogen which decreases pH
  • breathing is increased
  • partial pressure of CO2 increases with exercise
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28
Q

blood

A

connective tissue

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29
Q

components of blood

A

cell, formed elements, and matrix

  • RBC
  • WBC
  • platelets
  • all from red bone marrow
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30
Q

functions of blood

A
  • carry O2 and CO2
  • carry nutrients
  • move waste to kidney/liver
  • transport hormone from gland to target
  • carry immune cells to infections
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31
Q

Hemoglobin

A

oxygen carrying protein molecule, 4 sections linked together, each chain has heme

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32
Q

heme

A

what O2 binds to, 4 in each hemoglobin

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33
Q

cooperative binding

A
  • one heme binds with O2, the hemoglobin changed shape so that the other 3 heme are more likely to bind
  • makes it more likely for other heme to gain or lose O2
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34
Q

Heart structure and function, how B flows through

A

deoxygenated->superior/inferior vena cava-> right atrium->right ventricle->out pulmonary artery->lungs->oxygenated->pulmonary vein->left atrium->left ventricle->out aorta to body

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35
Q

neuron structure

A
  • dendrites
  • cell body
  • axon
  • axon terminals
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36
Q

dendrites

A

first to pick up chemical signal, convert chemical signal to electrical

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37
Q

cell body

A

gets electrical signal and sends it to axon

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38
Q

axon

A

long, reaches axon terminal

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39
Q

axon terminal

A

connects to either another dendrite or to a muscle

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40
Q

CNS vs PNS

A
  • CNS = ganglia, brain and spinal cord, process signal and send response, protected by bone
  • PNS = everything outside CNS, sensor and motor
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41
Q

Categories of PNS

A
  1. sensory
  2. motor
    2a. somatic
    2b. autonomic
    2ba. sympathetic
    2bb. parasympathetic
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42
Q

sensory

A

get stimulus and send TO CNS

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43
Q

motor

A

get stimulus FROM CNS and send it to body, reaction, end in muscle

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44
Q

somatic

A

part of motor, voluntary, connect to muscle tissue

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45
Q

autonomic

A

involuntary

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46
Q

sympathetic

A

part of autonomic, fight or flight

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47
Q

parasympathetic

A

part of autonomic, rest or digest, conserve and restore energy

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48
Q

flow of info from nervous system and reflexes

A

sensory neuron get stimulated->carry info to brain->process->interneuron->motor->effect

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49
Q

electrochemical gradient

A

combination of the electrical and concentration gradient

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50
Q

way electrochemical gradient gets resting potential

A

2 potassium move into the cell and 3 sodium move out, causing negative resting potential

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51
Q

How Na-K pump works

A
  1. carrier membrane binds with intracellular sodium
  2. ATP phosphorylate protein bind with sodium, changes shape
  3. change shape (kick out 3 sodium)
  4. 2 potassium bind and come in
  5. kick out potassium
  6. change shape back, K is released into cell, cycle complete
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52
Q

steps of AP from stim to after refractory

A

stimulus->Na channels open (threshold)->more positive (depolarization)->peak forms new AP->membrane potential becomes more negative (repolarization)extra K open-> refractory period/hyperpolarization->Na+-K+ restored

53
Q

Axon structure

A
  • myelin sheath

- nodes of ranvier

54
Q

myelin sheath

A

wraps around axon, prevents loss of ions during AP, made of Schwann cells, allows faster transmission of signals

55
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

gaps in sheath, have Na and K channels, new AP can be generated

56
Q

Synapses

A

how action potentials move from one neuron to another, tiny gaps between neurons

57
Q

diencephalon

A

information about environment to trigger homeostasis, hypothalamus control homeostasis, thalamus

58
Q

brain stem

A

control involuntary processes

59
Q

4 brain lobes

A
  • frontal
  • parietal
  • occipital
  • temporal
60
Q

occipital

A

vision, in the back of brain

61
Q

temporal

A

auditory, memory, speech, temples

62
Q

Broca’s area

A

frontal lobe, motor of speaking, form words and being physically able to talk

63
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

understanding words and responding, temporal

64
Q

Lateralization of brain function

A

some functions are specific to one side of the brain, each hemisphere controls the opposite side

65
Q

Split brain

A

corpus callosum is cut, normal function until task requires both hemispheres

66
Q

How senses processed

A

stimulation
transduction
transmission
interpretation

67
Q

how senses interpreted

A

highly specific receptor cells, signals are sent to specific areas of the brain

68
Q

location of somatic receptors in edi/dermis

A
  • merkel’s disk = epidermis
  • meissner’s corpuscle = boarder
  • ruffini’s ending = middle of skin, two leaves
  • pacinian corpuscle = deep, big circle
69
Q

auditory structures and how sound moves through ear

A

tympanic membrane->cochlea->cochlear nerve

70
Q

function of semicircular canals

A

detect rotation and angular acceleration/deceleration by endolymph moving hair cells inside ampulla

71
Q

simple vs. complex eyes

A
  • simple = structure with 1 lens, focus light onto photoreceptor
  • complex = thousand of ommatidida that each send info about a small piece of visual field, not all cohesive
72
Q

How light moves through eyes

A

light enters cornea->regulated by iris->pass through pupil and lens->cornea and lens focus light on retina

73
Q

type of receptor of eyes

A

photoreceptor

74
Q

function of rods and cones

A
  • rods = detect light, can be triggered by single photon, have rhodopsin, see in dark
  • cones = detect color, require more light
75
Q

wavelengths of color vision

A
  • different WV allow to see different colors
  • small=blue
  • medium=green
  • large=red
76
Q

Taste receptors

A
  • epithelial that are inside taste buds
  • have a taste pore with microvilli at one end and connect to nerve fiber with other
  • process different tastes and send info to brain by nerve fiber
77
Q

how we smell

A

scent molecule binds to receptor in epithelial lining (hair)->signal travels through olfactory receptor to olfactory nerve->reaches olfactory bulb->converted from chemical to AP->sends signal to brain

78
Q

locomotive

A

movement relative to environment

79
Q

non-locomotive

A

movement of part of the animal relative to other parts

80
Q

how muscles move

A
  • locomotive

- non-locomotive

81
Q

contraction/shortening of sarcomere

A

myosin binds to actin->orientation change->force->slide->to unbind, myosin head binds to ATP->release actin->myosin head returns to original->can bind again

82
Q

sliding filament theory

A

results from interaction between actin and myosin filaments generate movement relative to one another

83
Q

myosin

A

2 long polypeptide chains coiled, each chain has 2 heads at one end with ATP activity
- myosin molecule->myosin filament->bind with actin->head bends->contract

84
Q

actin

A
  • 2 chains coiled together
  • tropomyosin
  • troponins
85
Q

tropomyosin

A

around actin chain, protein used for contraction

86
Q

troponins

A

groups of proteins that regulate muscular contraction, skeletal and cardiac

87
Q

What triggers contraction

A

initiated by AP from motor neuron

88
Q

Ca2+ release

A
  • bind to troponin-> change conformation->pull tropomyosin strands away->expose binding sites->myosin and actin interact->Ca2+ return to sarcoplasmic reticulum
  • released from sarcoplasmic reticulum at depolarization
89
Q

skeletal muscle fiber types

A
  • regulate contractions
  • slow
  • fast
90
Q

slow muscle fiber

A

red, more hemoglobin, ATP from cellular respiration, more mitochondria, slow speed, fatigues slowly

91
Q

fast muscle fiber

A

white, ATP form glycolysis, less mitochondria, fast speed, faster fatigue

92
Q

muscle organization

A
  • parallel = sarcomeres are in rows, longer length
  • pennate = sarcomeres are side by side, smaller length change, larger amount of sarcomeres, larger force, sarcomeres don’t shorten as much
93
Q

function of skeletal system

A
  • protection
  • posture
  • re-extending shortened muscles
  • transfer muscle forces
94
Q

types of skeletal system

A
  • hydrostatic
  • endoskeleton
  • exoskeleton
95
Q

hydrostatic

A

use pressure and muscles to move, peristalsis, can alternate muscle use and push fluid

  • longitudinal and circular
  • continuous movement
  • circular muscle contract->pressure increases->fluid moves out
96
Q

peristalsis

A

continuous muscle contraction to move fluid

97
Q

endoskeleton

A
  • bone
  • joints
  • cartilage
  • ligaments
  • tendons
  • flexors
  • extensors
  • calcium
98
Q

bone

A

hard, extracellular matrix, dense, calcium phosphate, carbonate, meet at joint

99
Q

joint

A

where two bones connect

100
Q

cartilage

A

gelatinous matrix, rigidity varies

101
Q

ligaments

A

bone to bone, stabilize joint

102
Q

tendons

A

connect bone to muscle, connective tissue fiber, transmit muscle force to bone
- contract->tendon pulls bone

103
Q

flexor

A

decrease joint of angle, bone closer together

104
Q

extensors

A

increase joint angle

105
Q

calcium in body

A

needed for cell division, muscle contraction, and neurotransmitter release

106
Q

exoskeleton

A

protect and support

107
Q

bats ability to fly

A

echolocation/high frequency sound waves that bounce off object are are detected by ears

108
Q

pros of exoskeleton

A

increase support and protection

109
Q

cons of exoskeleton

A

doesn’t grow with body so have to use energy to molt

110
Q

how calcium leads to osteoporosis

A

osteoclasts secret acid and break down bone to get correct amount of Ca+ in blood

111
Q

oxygen capacity in water factors

A
  • depth
  • solubility
  • temperature (increase temp=decrease O2)
  • solutes
  • photosynthetic organism
  • air bubbles
112
Q

Types of synapses

A
  • chemical = release neurotransmitter that cause response

- electrical = gap junctions

113
Q

2 main muscle filaments

A
  • myosin

- actin

114
Q

ion most abundant outside cell at resting potential

A

Na+

115
Q

ion most abundant inside cell at resting potential

A

K+

116
Q

positive pressure ventilation

A

increases pressure in oral cavity

- force air into lungs

117
Q

types of neurons

A
  • motor
  • sensory
  • interneurons
118
Q

open circulatory system

A
  • nothing containing blood

- blood has direct contact with tissues

119
Q

declarative memories

A

available to consciousness

120
Q

nondeclarative memories

A

not available to consciousness

- motor skills

121
Q

why O2 move from here to tissue

A

diffuse because there is less O2 in tissue than there is in B, so move into tissue from blood

122
Q

buccal pumping

A

open and close operculum to move water over gills

123
Q

ram ventilation

A

no operculum, gill slits, so have to constantly move to get oxygen

124
Q

tone

A

determined by location of hair cells that are stimulated along membrane

125
Q

LocalizaTion

A

compare Loudness and Timing of input between ears

126
Q

reason why air on Mt. Everest is thinner

A

fewer molecules per unit volume of air

127
Q

Limbic system

A

emotions, memory, instinct, and physiological drive

128
Q

parts of brain in limbic system

A
  • hypothalamus
  • hippocampus
  • amygdala
129
Q

how is information organized in the CNS

A

topographically

  • parietal = sensory
  • frontal = motor

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