Gen Chem Flashcards

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1
Q

What are isotopes?

A

Same elements with the same atomic number (protons) and chemical properties but different number of neutrons (mass number)

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2
Q

What do valence electrons determine?

A

Chemical properties of that molecule

VE’s are also the most easily removed and most available for bonding

Electrons: lowest mass
Protons: moderate mass
Neutrons: most mass

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3
Q

Atomic mass vs. atomic weight?

A

Atomic mass: roughly equal to the mass number in amu

Atomic weight: weighted average of isotopes (as most all elements exist as isotopes)

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4
Q

What is important in the Bohr model about electron energy levels?

A

As electrons rise in energy level they absorb light, become excited, have higher potential, and become more distant from the nucleus

If enough energy is transferred electrons can move to an excited state (beyond ground state of n=1)

Excitation is brief and the return to ground state is associated w/ photon emission

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5
Q

Instead of the Bohr model where do electrons really exist?

A

In orbitals or regions in space b/c of electron-electron repulsion

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6
Q

What is the Heisenberg Uncertainty principle?

A

It is impossible to determine both the momentum and position of an electron

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7
Q

What are the quantum numbers and what do they describe?

A

They describe the location of an electron

Principal Quantum Number (first number)
   - denoted as n
   - larger the value indicates the higher the energy level 
     and radius
   - corresponds to the row or period 

Azimuthal Quantum number (second number)

  • denoted as ℓ
  • describes the shape and number of subshells
  • 0: s subshell
  • 1: p subshell
  • 2: d subshell
  • 3: f subshell
  • larger the value the greater the energy level

Next is Magnetic Quantum Number (mℓ) then Spin Quantum Number (ms)

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8
Q

What is electron configuration? Aufbau Principle? Hund Principle? Pauli Princple?

A

Ex: 1s2, 2s2, 2p4 is electron configuration for O
If anion: add another electron so 2p4 becomes 2p5, if cation:

Aufbau: electrons fill from low to high energy levels and fill shells fill completely before filling next energy level

Hund: electrons fill all half shells first then double up (this minimizes repulsion), this makes it so half and fully filled orbitals have lower energy

Pauli: electrons have opposite spins

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9
Q

Paramagnetic vs. diamagnetic?

A

Paramagnetic: means has unpaired electrons, is attracted to magnets, parallel spin alignment and magnetic field lines bend toward material

Diamagnetic: means all paired electrons, is repelled by magnets, anti-parallel spin alignment and magnetic field lines bend away from material

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10
Q

Periods/groups correspond to rows/columns? Valence electrons?

A

Periods are rows

Groups are columns (which corresponds to # of VE’s)

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11
Q

What is the periodic notation?

A

Top is atomic number next is the element and bottom is the atomic weight

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12
Q

Metals vs. nonmetals vs. metalloids characteristics?

A

Metals: left side of periodic table

  • low electronegativity
  • low charge
  • large atomic radius
  • small ionic radius
  • LOW IONIZATION ENERGY
  • GOOD CONDUCTOR

Nonmetals: right side of periodic table

  • HIGH IONIZATION ENERGY
  • high electronegativity
  • POOR CONDUCTOR

Metalloids: b/w transition metals and right side
- semi-metal so mixed characteristics

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13
Q

How do you determine the smallest ionic radius in an isoelectric series?

Vs. atomic radius

A

Just know that cation = smallest and anions = biggest b/c isoelectric so only that (+) or (-) matters

Atomic radius is determined by periodic table

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14
Q

What is Zeff and where is it largest of periodic table?

A

Effective nuclear charge or the pull of valence electrons to the nucleus

It increases from left to right across a period because more valence electrons = more attraction with nucleus

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15
Q

What do the noble gases represent?

A

The ideal valence electron configuration, most stable/inert/nonreactive

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16
Q

What is the atomic radius periodic table trend?

A

Atomic radius is highest in the bottom left corner of the periodic table

Left because a lower Zeff holds valence electrons less tightly
Bottom because shells are added resulting in valence electrons being farther away

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17
Q

What is the ionization energy periodic table trend?

A

Ionization energy is highest in the top right corner of the periodic table

It is the energy required to remove an electron from the nucleus so the closer it is to the nucleus the harder it is to remove

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18
Q

What is the electronegativity periodic table trend?

A

Electronegativity is highest in the top right corner of the periodic table

It is a measure of the attractive force to an electron, how well it can tolerate a (-) charge

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19
Q

What group are alkali metals/alkaline earth metals/halogens/noble gas located in?

Transition metals?

A

Alkali metals: Group 1 (reactive)

Alkaline earth metals: Group 2 (reactive)

Halogens: Group 17 (reactive with G1,2 metals)

Noble Gas: Group 18 (inert, high IE, no electronegativity, low BP)

Transition metals: the stuff in the middle (high BP and MP, good conductors)

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20
Q

Ionic bond vs. covalent bond characteristics?

A

Ionic bonds:
- significantly different electronegativities (metal and
non-metal)
- higher BP and MP than covalent because of
electrostatic attraction
- readily dissolve in water and polar solvents
- aqueous: good conductors
- solid: form a crystalline lattice

Covalent:
- similar electronegativities

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21
Q

What are bond length trends?

A

C≡C is shortest and strongest
C-C is longest and weakest

Bond length increases w/ atomic radii so larger atomic radii = weaker bond

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22
Q

What are bond energy trends?

A

Energy required to break a bond so higher bond energy = stronger bond

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23
Q

What is polarity? In bonding?

A

Refers to the electronegativity difference b/w atoms that creates a dipole with positive end at less electronegative atom

Polar bonds: unequal sharing of electrons from electronegativity difference

Non-Polar bonds: equal sharing of electrons or diatomic (O2, N2, etc.)

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24
Q

What are coordinate bonds? Coordination number? Usually a lewis acid/base?

A

Bonds where both pairs of bonding electrons come from the same atom, USUALLY COORDINATE COVALENT

Coordination number: number of atoms bound to a central atom

Central atom is usually lewis acid and ligands are usually lewis base

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25
Q

How do you calculate formal charge?

A

FC = VE - sticks - dots

sticks being number and dots being individual electrons in LP’s

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26
Q

What is resonance?

A

Molecular structures w/ the same arrangement of atoms but differ in the placement of electrons

Exist as hybrid structures with electron delocalization

The more stable a resonance structure the more it contributes to the hybrid structure

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27
Q

What three things can determine stability of a molecule?

A

1) lower FC
2) less separation of opposite charges
3) (-) charge on more electronegative atom

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28
Q

VSEPR Shit…

A

2 electron clouds: linear (180)

3 electron clouds: trigonal planar (120)
w/ a LP: bent

4 electron clouds: tetrahedral
w/ a LP: trigonal pyramidal

5 electron clouds: trigonal bipyramidal

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29
Q

Single/sigma bond vs. double/pi bond?

A

Sigma bonds have head to head overlap and free rotation

Double bonds are made up of a sigma bond and a pi bond that makes it have side to side or parallel overlap and no free rotation

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30
Q

What are the three types of IMF’s?

A

1) London Dispersion Forces
- short-lived attractive/repulsive interactions by shifting
dipoles
- everything has these

2) Dipole-Dipole
- when polar molecules orient such that the partial
negative regions are near the partial positive region of
another molecule

3) H-Bonding
- Partial positive H interacts w/ partial negative (F, O, N)
that is nearby
- INCREASES BOILING POINT

IMF’s when summed together can be quite impressive

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31
Q

How many particles are in a mole?

A

6.022x10^23

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32
Q

What are equivalents?

A

The number of mols of the interested substance does one mole of a given compound produce

= mass of compound (in grams) / gram equivalent weight

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33
Q

What is gram equivalent weight?

A

the amount of compound, in grams, that produces one equivalent of a particle

= molar mass/n n: # of particles produced/consumed

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34
Q

What is normality?

A

A measure of concentration using equivalents (equivalents / L)

Molarity = normality/n

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35
Q

Empirical vs. molecular formula?

A

Empirical formula: Simplest/smallest whole-number ratio of elements in compound (CH)

Molecular formula: Exact number of atoms of each element in the compound (C6H6)

36
Q

What is a combination reaction vs. decomposition reaction?

A

Combination: Two or more reactants forming one product

Decomposition: A single reactant breaking down into two or more products

37
Q

What is a combustion reaction?

A

Involves the formation of CO2 and H2O from a fuel (hydrocarbon) and an oxidant (O)

38
Q

What is a single displacement vs. double displacement reaction?

A

Single displacement: Atom in a compound is replaced by an atom of another element
Ex: Cu + AgNO3 –> Ag + CuNO3

Double Displacement: elements from two different compounds swap places w/ each other to form two new compounds
Ex: CaCl2 + AgNO3 –> Ca(NO3) + AgCl

39
Q

What is a neutralization reaction?

A

A type of double displacement reaction where an acid and a base react to produce water and a salt

40
Q

What is a redox reaction? Disproportionation? Oxidation state rules?

A

A reaction that involves a change in oxidation state

Dispro: when both oxidation and reduction happen to atoms of the same element

Element by itself: 0
Neutral compound: sum of oxidation numbers is 0
Ionic: sum of oxidation numbers is the charge

Group 1: +1
Group 2: +2
Group 17: -1 (+1 w/ O)

H: +1 (w/ nonmetal) -1 (w/ metal)
F: -1
O: -2 (-1 w/ H2O2)

41
Q

What does collision theory state?

A

That rate is proportional to the number of collisions of sufficient KE to overcome the Ea

42
Q

What does transition state theory state?

A

That when molecules w/ sufficient Ea collide they form a transition state (greatest free energy) that then dissociates into product

43
Q

ΔG is b/w?

A

Free energy of products and reactants

+ΔG: endergonic, energy absorbed
-ΔG: exergonic, energy released

Plot it on reaction coordinate diagram to see

Forward and reverse reaction have same ΔG but possibly different Ea

44
Q

What factors can affect reaction rate?

A
  • reactant concentration (greater concentration = greater rate)
  • temperature (greater temp = greater rate)
  • reaction medium
  • catalysts
45
Q

What are functions of catalysts?

A
  • increase frequency of collisions
  • change orientation for more effective collisions
  • STABILIZE TRANSITION STATE INTERMEDIATE
  • LOWER Ea (FORWARD AND REVERSE) WITH NO CHANGE IN ΔG OR Keq
  • Not consumed
46
Q

What is the rate law equation? How do you determine reaction orders? What are the reaction orders?

A

Rate = k[A]^x[B]^y

x,y are the orders of the reaction
k = reaction rate coefficient

1) identify pair of trials where concentration of one reactant changes and all others are held constant
- to find rate order for [A] find where [B] is same but [A]
changes
2) identify order of reaction
3) replace exponents to create rate law

Zero Order: independent of concentration changes

First Order: directly proportional to one reactant

Second Order: proportional to the square of a single reactant

Overall: sum of individual orders

47
Q

What is bicarbonate buffer reaction?

A

CO2 + H2O <> H2CO3 <> H+ + HCO3-

H2CO3: carbonic acid
HCO3-: bicarbonate

48
Q

What is Keq?

A

Equilibrium constant

Keq = [products]/[reactants]
exponents = stoich coefficients
@equilibrium and given temp
Exclude solids, liquids (H2O)

Greater Keq indicates -ΔG, spontaneous reaction, equilibrium favors forward reaction

49
Q

What is Le Chatelier’s Principle? Pressure effect? Temperature effect?

A

Systems always react in a direction to restore equilibrium

Law of Mass Action: buildup of reactants one side will push the forward reaction towards production formation

Pressure: when pressure is increased reaction will shift towards side w/ less moles of gas

Temperature: affects Keq, ΔH>0 (endothermic) heat is reactant, ΔH<0 (exothermic) heat is product

50
Q

What is the kinetic vs. thermodynamic product?

A

Kinetic product: forms faster but is less stable, found in lower temps (less free energy added), determined by Ea, irreversible

Thermodynamic product: forms slower but is more stable, found in higher temps (more free energy added), determined by ΔG, reversible
- stability: measured in heat of combustion

51
Q

What is a state function?

A

It describes system in equilibirum

52
Q

What is a process function?

A

It describes pathways b/w equilibrium states

53
Q

Identify points on a phase diagram

A

Refer to notes (Gen Chem Ch. 7)

54
Q

What is enthalpy? Equation? Exothermic? Endothermic?

A

ΔHrxn = Hproducts - Hreactants

(+)ΔH = endothermic, breaking bonds
(-)ΔH = exothermic, forming bonds

ΔHrxn = ΔHbonds broken - ΔHbonds formed

55
Q

What is entropy?

A

The measure of the dispersal of energy (how spread out it is) or measure of disorder

Increased entropy is increased disorder

56
Q

What is Gibbs Free Energy? Equation? Exergonic? Endergonic?

A

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

(-)ΔG = spontaneous
(+)ΔG = non-spontaneous
ΔG = 0 = equilibrium 

Exergonic on reaction diagram is free energy of products is lower

Ea = Etx state - Ereactants

When ΔH and ΔS have same signs then ΔG is dependent on temperature

  • if both (+) then spontaneous at high temps
  • if both (-) then spontaneous at low temps

(+)H and (-)S = non-spontaneous
(-)H and (+)S = spontaneous

57
Q

What is STP? Gas at STP?

A

273K and 1 atm

Any gas at STP has a volume of 22.4L/mol
Or one mole of gas occupies 22.4L of volume

58
Q

What is barometer?

A

Atmospheric (external pressure) applies on outside, opposing force of weight applies on inside

When atmospheric pressure is greater the fluid rises

59
Q

What is an ideal gas? Assumptions? Equation?

A

1) molecules have no IMF’s
2) molecules have elastic collisions
3) molecules occupy negligible volume

PV = nRT
pressure, volume, number of moles, constant, temperature

60
Q

Is N2 stable?

A

Yes, very inert because N triple bonds

61
Q

What is the combined gas law? Boyle’s law? Charle’s law? Gay-Lussac’s law?

A

Combined: P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2

Boyle’s: pressure is proportional to inverse of volume, P1V1 = P2V2

Charle’s: volume is proportional to temperature, V1/T1 = V2/T2

Gay-Lussac’s: pressure is proportional to temperature P1/T1 = P2/T2

Avogadro: T and P are constant when volume is proportional to n mols

62
Q

What are gas partial pressures?

A

Indicates the total amount it contributes overall

Ptotal = P (of A) + P (of B)

63
Q

What is a solution? Solute? Solvent?

A

A homogenous mixture of two or more substances that combine to a liquid phase

Solute: substance that is dissolved in the…
Solvent:

64
Q

What is solubility? Equation? Ksp?

A

The max amount of solute that can be dissolved in a solvent at a given temp.

If solute is beyond the Ksp, or saturation, it will precipitate and form a solid

Ksp = [a x prodcuts]^a / [b x reactants]^b

  • a,b = stoich coefficients, raised to power and multiplied by
  • solids and pure liquids are not included
  • only gases and aqueous are included

Common ion effect

65
Q

What is the dilution equation?

A

M1V1 = M2V2

66
Q

What will dissolve in what?

A

Like dissolves like

Polar solvent will dissolve polar solute

67
Q

What are colligative properties? Examples?

A

Properties dependent of dissolved particles and not chemical identity

BP: The temp where vapor pressure = external pressure

  • so vacuum lowers BP
  • intermolecular

Vapor pressure: increase solute causes a lower vapor pressure of solvent so higher temp needed for BP

Freezing point: increased solute results in a lower (more cold) freezing point b/c particles interfere in lattice structure
- intermolecular

68
Q

What is an Arrhenius base/acid?

A

Acid: dissociates to form excess H+ in solution

Base: dissociates to form excess OH- in solution

69
Q

What is a Bronsted-Lowry acid/base?

A

Acid: H+ donor

Base: H+ acceptor

70
Q

What is a Lewis acid/base?

A

Acid: electron pair acceptor

Base: electron pair donor

71
Q

What are amphoteric species?

A

Can behave as both an acid and a base, H2O for example

72
Q

What is the autoionization of water?

A

H20 + H2O <> H3O + OH

Water can react with itself

Kw = 1x10^-14

73
Q

pH and pOH equations?

A

pH = -log[H+] -log 10^-7 =7

pOH = -log[OH-}

pH + pOH = 14

74
Q

What are the strong acids?

A

Completely dissociate in solution

H2SO4
HI
HBr
HNO3
HCl
HClO4

So I brought no clean clothes

75
Q

What are strong bases?

A

NaOH
KOH
other group 1 metals

76
Q

Ka, Kb, Kw?

A

(Ka)(Kb) = Kw

[products]/[reactants]

Lower Ka = weaker acid
Lower pKa = stronger acid

Compare Ka and Kb can figure out if acid or base

77
Q

What are titrations? Equivalence points? Indicators? Polyprotic meaning?

A

Titration: used to determine the concentration of a known reactant in solution
- add titrant to titrand until reaching an equivalence
point (steep part) which indicates acid/base
equivalents are equal
- flat parts indicate the pKa’s

Number of equivalence points equals the number of steep parts

Blue = base
Red = acid

Polyprotic: means the molecule can lose multiple protons (has multiple H’s) so will also have multiple equivalence points

78
Q

What are buffers? Equation?

A

pKa = +/- 1 pH unit

A mixture of a weak acid its salt (conjugate base and cation)
A mixture of a weak base and its salt (conjugate acid and anion)

These mixtures are able to resist drastic changes in pH

pH = pKa + log ([base]/[acid])

79
Q

OILRIG? Oxidizing agent? Reducing agent?

A

Oxidation is loss of electrons
Reduction is gain of electrons

Oxidizing agent: itself is reduced and causes another thing to get oxidized

Reducing agent: itself is oxidized and causes another thing to get reduced

80
Q

What is a spectator ion?

A

An ion on both sides of the reaction in the same and therefore doesn’t take part in the reaction

81
Q

Electrochemical cells.. where does oxidation/reduction occur at?

A

Reduction @ cathode
Oxidation @ anode

Electrons move anode –> cathode

82
Q

Galvanic/Voltaic vs. electrolytic cells?

A

Ecell = Ecathode - Eanode

Galvanic: spontaneous reactions so has a (+)Ecell
- anode is negative and cathode is positive

Electrolytic: non-spontaneous reactions so has a (-) Ecell
- anode is positive and cathode is negative

83
Q

What are reduction potentials? Where do electrons appear in half reactions for red/ox?

A

Refers to the likelihood a compound is to be reduced (Ered)

(+) E red: spontaneous reduction
(-) E red: non-spontaneous reduction

When working with reduction potentials you sum them but may need to flip sign of one of the half reactions so they’re both reduction

Ered = oxidizing agent - reducing agent

Reduction: electrons are included with the reactaints
Oxidation: electrons are included with the products

84
Q

What is a reference electrode?

A

It contains known electrical potential and ion concentration

85
Q

What energy level do lost electrons get removed from?

A

The highest energy level so if there was a partial 3d orbital the 4s electrons would be removed