A Flashcards
NCE (244 cards)
1
Q
abc theory of personality
A
Albert Ellis’s rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) method of conceptualizing the origin of human feelings and their resulting behaviors. A stands for an activating event or experience, B stands for a person’s thought (s) or belief(s) about A, and C represents feeling(s) or emotion (s) resulting from the thought(s) in B.
2
Q
ab research design
A
A simple time series experimental research design method in which a baseline (A) is established before an intervention strategy (B) is introduced.
3
Q
ABAB research design
A
A more complex and involved experimental research design than an AB simple time series experiment. In this method, a baseline (A) is established, followed by an intervention (B), which is then discontinued after a time, followed by a second baseline (A) and intervention (B). The ABAB research design is used to confirm that the treatment intervention (B) really had an effect on the baseline behavior.
4
Q
A-B-C-D-E paradigm
A
Albert Ellis’s rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) method of correcting illogical or irrational thinking and promoting and maintaining change. In this model, the A, B, and C are the same as in the A-B-C theory of personality. D is the counselor disputing any irrational thoughts or beliefs of the client. E refers to the presumed consequences (or effects) of the counselor’s interventions, that is, the client gaining a different perception of an event and the new feelings the client has in regard to the event or situation in A.
5
Q
ABCX model of a crisis
A
The theory that the combination of an event or situation (A), coping resources, (B) and perception (C) determine the extent of a crisis (X).
6
Q
ability test
A
A test that measures the extent to which a person is presently functioning in a particular area, such as math. An ability test provides an estimate of what the person is capable of performing in regard to a certain task.
7
Q
ableism
A
A type of discrimination that excludes people who are disabled in any way (e.g., have mental, emotional, behavioral, or physical disabilities).
8
Q
abnormal
A
Functioning that is divergent or maladaptive from what is considered normal among a population, especially if the behavior is persistent. Abnormal is a culturally sensitive concept because what is considered appropriate in one society may not be seen as such in another.
9
Q
abreaction
A
A psychoanalysis term for the therapeutic relieving of painful or distressing emotion by a client through calling into awareness experiences or material that has been repressed.
10
Q
absolutism
A
A term in Jean Piaget’s stages of moral development for the concern that children, beginning at approximately age 5 years, have about right and wrong and the rules of life. At this stage, children have absolute faith in the rules their parents have given them (e.g., “Never talk to a stranger”).
11
Q
abstract (2 definitions)
A
- A brief formal summary at the beginning of a research study or theoretical paper. 2. The ability to understand symbolic concepts.
12
Q
absurdity
A
A statement that is half truthful and even silly if followed to its conclusion (e.g., “I’ll simply fall apart if my son acts that way again”). Counselors sometimes work with individuals and families by using absurdities and exaggerating client statements to help them recognize realities. The use of absurdities is a favorite method of many rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) therapists.
13
Q
abuse (2 definitions)
A
- All forms of maltreatment or improper behavior of one person or group by another (or on oneself), whether physical, sexual, behavioral, cognitive, economic, or emotional. 2. The misuse of substances, such as alcohol or drugs, to the detriment of a person’s physical, mental, spiritual, and moral health and well-being.
14
Q
ACA Code of Ethics
A
The American Counseling Association (ACA) has a Code of Ethics that each member of the association is expected to follow. The first Code was initiated by Donald Super in 1961. Since that time, the Code has been revised six times: in 1974, 1981, 1988, 1995, 2005, and 2014. The Code has nine main sections: The Counseling Relationship; Confidentiality and Privacy; Professional Responsibility; Relationships With Other Professionals; Evaluation, Assessment, and Interpretation; Supervision, Training, and Teaching; Research and Publication; Distance Counseling, Technology, and Social Media;
15
Q
ACA Competencies
A
These documents contain information on advocacy in a number of counseling areas. See the full list at www.counseling. org/knowledge-center/competencies.
16
Q
academic enablers
A
In schools, interpersonal skills, motivation, engagement, and study skills that can improve or hinder academic success.
17
Q
accent
A
When the last few words of a client’s statement are highlighted by a counselor to give them emphasis. For example, if a client says, “The situation I’m in now is driving me crazy,” the counselor might reply, “Driving you crazy?”
18
Q
acceptance (4 definitions)
A
- Also known as unconditional positive regard. A deep and genuine caring for the client as a person; a prizing of the person just for being. Carl Rogers stated that acceptance is one of the three necessary and sufficient conditions for change. The other two are congruence (genuineness) and empathy. 2. A simple acknowledgment by the counselor of the client’s previous statement with a response such as “Yes” or “Uh-huh” that encourages the client to continue. 3. The act of acknowledging what is happening in a counseling session as opposed to evaluating it. 4. The final stage in Elisabeth Kübler-Ross’s five stages of grief. This stage is one of peace, almost devoid of feeling.
19
Q
accommodation (3 definitions)
A
- The ability of a person or group to modify cultural ways to fit in better with a new environment or another group. 2. The process in which a counselor joins with a client to achieve a therapeutic alliance based on the nature of the client. To accommodate, counselors make personal adjustments, such as modifying their speech patterns or behaviors. 3. Jean Piaget’s term for the way in which children alter their thinking when new experiences cannot be incorporated through assimilation into their intellectual framework (e.g., when a child realizes that not all women are his or her mother). The opposite of assimilation.
20
Q
accountability
A
Documenting effectiveness through the use of measured means such as outcome research or feedback. To be responsible to their clients and the profession, counselors must be able to document that the procedures and methods they use are effective, such as informing clients that the treatment being used has been found to be effective in 80% of similar kinds of cases.
21
Q
accreditation
A
An approval process, usually involving an academic program of study, in which members of an outside agency authorized by a profession, such as counseling, inspect and certify that program training standards as well as practicum and internship site requirements are being met at or above a minimum level. In counseling, approved programs of study are accredited by the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP).
22
Q
acculturation
A
- The ways in which people learn the customs, beliefs, behaviors, and traditions of a culture. 2. The degree to which individuals from minority cultures identify with or conform to the attitudes, lifestyles, and values of the majority culture. For example, a member of a minority culture may act, dress, and speak like persons from the majority culture in an attempt to fit in. 3. Cultural adaptation that occurs as a result of contact between multiple cultures.
23
Q
acculturation stress
A
The psychological, somatic, and social difficulties that may accompany the acculturation process by a member of a minority group.
24
Q
achievement test
A
An instrument that measures an individual’s degree of competence or learning in regard to a given subject or skill (e.g., the National Counselor Examination [NCE] ).
25
acquired culture
Learned habits picked up from others outside one’s own culture, such as shaking hands instead of bowing when greeting someone.
26
acrophobia
An exaggerated fear of being in high places or being up in the air.
27
acting as if
An Adlerian counseling technique in which clients are instructed to act as if they were the people they want to be, the ideal people they envision. For example, a person may act as if he or she is brave even if scared.
28
acting out
1. A psychoanalytic term for the direct or indirect enactment of unconscious tensions or wishes by a client in the form of disruptive or irrational behaviors. For example, a person may take a step backward every time he or she approaches a door. 2. A term for the disruptive and inappropriate behavior(s) of children, such as running around a classroom when other children are seated as requested.
29
action
1. When a client translates insights gained in counseling into a change in behavior. For example, a client may come to realize that he or she can obtain more of what he or she desires in life by using the assertiveness skills learned in counseling. 2. Slang for the act of gambling or placing a bet.
30
action bias
The tendency by a client to become mired in a problem situation because of a preference for reaction and following rather than action and initiation. For example, instead of telling someone before the fact that he or she is upset with the way he or she is usually treated, the person may wait until he or she has been treated that way again and then complain.
31
action exercises
Sensory awareness methods or guided imagery used in the warm-up phase of a group session or a psychodrama to help members discover common themes within the group as well as focus more on individual concerns.
32
action phase
1. When clients in counseling put insights into action. 2. The second part of a psychodrama process that involves the enactment of a protagonist’s concerns. For example, the protagonist may tell someone how he or she feels about him or her rather than bottling up the emotion.
33
action research
Experience-near research and that focuses on resolving practical, relevant problems that counselors routinely encounter, such as evaluating the effects of a psychoeducational program or treatment on clients. This type of research may not be as tightly controlled or as easily generalized as other types of research.
34
action stage
The working stage of individual, group, or family counseling in which clients focus on changing their behaviors. For example, clients may work on asking for what they want instead of being passive.
35
action therapy
A term for treatment procedures that are based on direct alterations of behavior, such as behavior modification.
36
active imagination
A Jungian technique of analysis in which individuals actively focus on experiences or images, such as in dreams or fantasies, and report changes in these images or experiences as they concentrate on them.
37
active listening
Attending to verbal and nonverbal aspects of a client’s communication without judging or evaluating to encourage trust, client self-disclosure, and exploration within the counseling relationship. Hearing what is being implied as well as what is explicitly stated. For example, when a client says, “It’s not the same for me anymore,” he or she may be implying that he or she is discouraged.
38
active mastery
A concept from the microcounseling supervision model (MSM) that is defined as the ability to produce specific and intentional results from chosen counseling skills. activity 1. Movement or behavior, including mental processes, on the part of a person. 2. In transactional analysis (TA), a way of structuring time that deals with external reality (e.g., work ).
39
activity group guidance (AGG)
Group guidance that involves activities that are developmental in nature, for example, learning proper etiquette. AGG typically includes coordinated guidance topics.
40
activity theory of aging
The idea that adults who are older should remain as involved in life-satisfying activities as long as they desire. The opposite of the disengagement theory of aging.
41
actors
Also known as auxiliary individuals who play the parts of important people or objects in a psychodrama play. With prompting from the protagonist, actors play the protagonist’s double, an antagonist, or even a piece of furniture. In the same psychodrama, an actor can play more than one part, such as the protagonist’s best friend and worst enemy.
42
actualizing tendency
An innate tendency or motivation in human beings toward growth and the fulfilling of their potential— an important concept in the person-centered counseling theory of Carl Rogers and in humanistic approaches to counseling.
43
acute
The relatively rapid or sudden onset of a condition, such as a school phobia, that is generally of brief duration (i.e., less than 6 months).
44
adaptive behavior
Also known as adaptation and adjustment. A response intended to deal positively with changes in one’s environment, for example, working harder instead of complaining at certain times of the day when the workload picks up.
45
adaptive child
A term in transactional analysis (TA) theory for the part of the child ego state that learns to adapt to the expectations of others (e.g., being courteous to adults) to gain acceptance and approval.
46
adaptive coping strategies
Key factors in education and prevention, such as exercise, sleep, meditation, anticipation, and social support.
47
addiction
Psychological or physiological dependence on a substance (e.g., alcohol, tobacco, cocaine ) or preoccupation with an activity (e.g., gambling, sex) in order to function. Addiction is characterized by increased tolerance of the drug or behavior and withdrawal symptoms when the substance or activity is unavailable. Behavior moves from normal to addictive when it both produces pleasure and reduces negative moods and includes two key features: (a) Individuals are unable to control, cut back, or stop the behavior (i.e., they are compulsive in their actions and out of control) and (b) individuals continue to use the behavior despite substantial negative consequences.
48
addiction counseling
Counseling that focuses on working with clients who have addictions. adding cognitive constructions The verbal component of structural family therapy consisting of advice, information, pragmatic fictions, and paradox.
49
additive responses
Empathetic verbal responses counselors give that add to a client’s understanding of a situation (e.g., “and that frustrates you”). Additive responses clarify thoughts and feelings as well as provide a fresh perspective on meaning.
50
ADDRESSING
A multicultural model in counseling created by Pamela Hays. The letters of the model stand for the following factors: Age and generational influences, Developmental disabilities, Disabilities acquired later in life, Religion (and/ or spirituality), Ethnicity (may include race), Social status (or social class), Sexual orientation, Indigenous heritage, National origin, and Gender (and gender socialization).
51
adequate yearly progress (AYP)
A provision in the No Child Left Behind Act that mandates that children make adequate academic progress on specific tests. 5 ADHD See attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
52
Adjective Checklist
A pencil-and-paper personality test generally used with adults. The test contains 300 adjectives and measures 37 dimensions of personality. It is not timed but usually takes from 15 to 20 minutes to complete.
53
adjourning
Also known as mourning and termination. The final stage in group development, when counseling comes to an end.
54
adjustment
The degree of harmony between people and their environments, for example, being able to speak the predominant language spoken. Successful adjustment results in adaptive behavior; unsuccessful adjustment results in behavior that is maladaptive.
55
adjustment test
A personality test that measures the ability of a person to function well in society and achieve personal needs.
56
Adlerian counseling
An approach to counseling devised by Alfred Adler. It includes an emphasis on the family constellation (especially birth order ), fictions (subjective evaluations of oneself or the environment), and an analysis of a client’s lifestyle. Treatment involves both the promotion of insight and reeducation with accompanying behavioral changes. See also individual psychology.
57
administrative model
A model of providing student activities in which professionals in college administration (e.g., admissions, records, food, health, financial aid) are put in charge of offering services.
58
administrative (regulatory) law
Specialized regulations passed by authorized government agencies that pertain to certain specialty areas, such as the profession of counseling.
59
adolescence
A term originated by G. Stanley Hall at the beginning of the 20th century for the age span between childhood and adulthood beginning at puberty. Adolescence is characterized as a period of transitions, a time of unevenness and paradoxes marked by physical, emotional, moral, and intellectual change. The basic challenge of adolescence according to Erik Erikson is to develop a self-identity. Failure to do so leads to role confusion and an identity crisis.
60
Adolescent Family Life Act (AFLA)
The first federal program devoted exclusively to addressing concerns about adolescent pregnancy. AFLA programs promote abstinence as a primary prevention.
61
adult children of alcoholics (ACoAs)
Adults who, as children, spent part or all of their childhood in a stressful family environment in which one or more caregivers abused alcohol. Many ACoAs have special issues to resolve through counseling, such as establishing trust and establishing a clear identity. Many ACoAs suffer from similar emotional disorders, including depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and anger.
62
adult ego state
A term in transactional analysis (TA) for the objective part of the personality that functions rationally in a planned and organized way. The adult ego state receives and processes materials from the parent ego state and the child ego state as well as the environment and makes decisions based on available information.
63
adulthood
A developmental stage of life of being fully grown. Adulthood encompasses physical, mental, social, and emotional factors. Adulthood encompasses a wide range of ages, from 18 years and older. It is usually broken down into early, middle, and late periods. According to Erik Erikson, the challenge of young adulthood is to achieve intimacy (i.e., a sharing of self in a close relationship with others). A failure to do so leads to isolation. The challenge of middle adulthood is to become generative (i.e., to create and become productive through one’s career, family, or leisure time). A failure to achieve generativity leads to stagnation. Finally, according to Erikson, the task of late adulthood is to achieve a sense of integrity (i.e., an acceptance of life in all its multiple dimensions). A failure to do so leads to despair.
64
advance beneficiary notice (ABN)
A written notice that a physician must give a Medicare patient before materials or services are provided.
65
advanced empathy
A process in which the counselor gets at feelings and meanings in the client’s life that are hidden or beyond the immediate awareness of the client. Advanced empathy goes beyond what has been stated to what is implied. Sometimes advanced empathy is expressed in the identification of and/or linking of themes in the client’s life, such as anxiety. See also primary empathy.
66
advice
A suggestion or recommendation (e.g., “I think you should take the job and move”). advice giving Instructing or providing someone with information or recommendations about what to do in a particular situation. Advice giving was one of the main techniques of E. G. Williamson and his directive counseling approach of the 1930s. Advice giving was challenged as a technique by Carl Rogers because of its tendency to promote client dependency and interfere with the client’s growth. Advice is used sparingly in most counseling approaches today. It is used mainly in crisis situations in which it either prevents clients from engaging in destructive acts or gives clients something beneficial to do when they are not able to generate constructive plans of action because of being overwhelmed by trauma. Advice giving, if not used judiciously, prevents clients from struggling with their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
67
advocacy
Organized actions that support or espouse a cause or person(s), such as lobbying, writing, petitioning, speaking, or politicking. Advocacy occurs on many levels (e.g., local, state, national). Counselors advocate for the welfare of their clients and the profession of counseling. Outreach, empowerment, social justice, and social action are all terms associated with advocacy.
68
Advocacy Competencies
This document (https:// www.counseling.org/docs/default-source/competencies/advocacy_competencies.pdf?sfvrsn=9) contains information on advocacy in a number of counseling areas, including client/student empowerment, community collaboration, systems advocacy, public information, and social/ political advocacy.
69
advocacy counseling
Counseling that includes outreach, empowerment, and social action.
70
Advocates for Youth
A national organization that champions efforts to help young people make informed and responsible decisions about their reproductive and sexual health (www. advocatesforyouth.org).
71
affect
Pertaining to emotion, feeling, mood, or a person’s overt emotional state. Affect is a primary emphasis of some counseling approaches.
72
affect blocks
Rollo May and Irvin Yalom’s term for places where a client gets emotionally stuck, for example, not being able to get over his or her anger. Affect blocks are like roadblocks in the journey of life.
73
affect disorder
Also known as mood disorder. A disorder associated with inappropriate expression of emotion (e.g., depression ).
74
affectional orientation
An alternative term for sexual or romantic orientation. The reason this alternative term is used is that sexual orientation is but one part of a larger dynamic.
75
affective experiencing
Ways of feeling .
76
affective-oriented counseling
Theories in counseling, such as gestalt therapy, that focus on making an impact on clients’ emotions to bring about change. The objective is to arouse, handle, and/or modify emotional responses in clients.
77
affiliation
A positive emotional relationship with someone (e.g., smiling and talking) but without attachment.
78
affirmation
When a counselor affirms the correctness of information or encourages a client’s efforts at self-determination. For example, the counselor might state, “That’s helpful new information” or “You seem to be gaining more control.”
79
African Americans
People in the United States whose ancestors came from Africa. African Americans constituted approximately 13.3% of the total population of the United States in 2015.
80
aftercare
Any follow-up or continued care services given to clients after their release from counseling. For example, individuals released from mental health facilities are often seen in aftercare groups periodically.
81
age discrimination
The unfair treatment of individuals based on their age.
82
age norms
Scores or values on tests that represent the typical or average performance of individuals at certain chronological ages, for example, age 12 years.
83
age of majority
The age when a young person is considered to be an adult. The age of majority depends on state laws and is usually between 18 and 21 years.
84
ageism
A form of prejudice exhibited when people are categorized and judged on the basis of their chronological age.
85
aggression
Any behavior —verbal, physical, or relational— directed at an individual or group with the intention of causing harm.
86
aging
A biological and psychological phenomenon composed of physiological changes as well as a mental process of considering oneself older.
87
aging family
A family in which the head or heads of the household is age 65 years or older.
88
agoraphobia
An exaggerated and irrational fear of being in an unfamiliar place or of leaving one’s home.
89
aha reaction
A sudden insight into one’s situation or environment; it may be accompanied by the exclamation “Aha!”
90
ahistorical counseling
Theories or techniques of counseling that focus on the present and not the past.
91
airtime
The opportunity and amount of time given to speak and express one’s concerns during a group .
92
Al-Anon
A voluntary mutual-help group organization founded in 1951. It is composed of relatives of alcohol abusers who meet regularly to discuss common problems. The Al-Anon World Service Office is located at 1600 Corporate Landing Parkway, Virginia Beach, VA 23454 (www.alanon.alateen.org).
93
Alateen
A similar program to Al-Anon but for younger people, usually ages 12 to 19 years.
94
Albert Ellis Institute
Formerly known as the Institute for Rational Living and later the Institute for Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. A not-for-profit educational organization founded in 1959 to promote rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). The institute is located at 145 East 32nd Street, New York, NY 10016 (212-535-0822; www.albertellis.org).
95
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA)
An organization that helps alcohol abusers gain and maintain control of their lives by remaining sober. Established in the late 1930s, there is a dependence within the AA program on a higher power outside oneself. Much of the work of AA is carried out in self-help groups. AA’s address is PO Box 459, Grand Central Station, New York, NY 10163 (212-870-3400; www.aa.org).
96
alcoholism
The chronic abuse of and compulsive increased use and tolerance of alcohol. Alcoholism is considered a progressive disease in which the client becomes physically and psychologically dependent on drinking alcohol.
97
alexia
The loss of ability to understand written words and/or sentences. ALGBTIC See Association for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Issues in Counseling.
98
ALGBTIC Competencies for Counseling LGBQIQA
This document (www.counseling. org/docs/default-source/competencies/algbtic-competencies-for-counseling-lgbqiqa. pdf?sfvrsn=14) contains competencies for working with lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer, intersex, questioning, and ally (LGBQIQA) individuals, groups , and communities.
99
ALGBTIC Competencies for Counseling Transgender Clients
This document (www.counseling.org/docs/default-source/competencies/ algbtic_competencies.pdf?sfvrsn=12) contains suggested competencies for use in counseling with transgender clients.
100
alienation
Feelings of being estranged or cut off from a group; a term often used to describe the separation of persons from their cultural groups. alignments The ways in which family members join together or oppose one another in carrying out a family activity; for example, siblings may band together against their parents.
101
alloplastic approach
Adjustment to a culturally different environment through confronting obstacles in the environment and changing them. The opposite of the autoplastic approach.
102
all-or-nothing thinking
A type of cognitive distortion characterized by assuming that things are absolutely perfect or absolutely terrible.
103
alone time
An intentional practice in which counselors devote periods in their lives to silence, solitude, and reflectivity to improve self-awareness, renew self-care , and practice gratitude.
104
alter ego
A psychodrama term for another version of oneself, usually the opposite of oneself.
105
alternate form
A different but comparable form of a standardized test, such as an achievement test or aptitude test. If a person is tested twice, the second test can consist of the alternate form of the first test.
106
alternative hypothesis
A possible outcome in research not covered by the null hypothesis.
107
alternative narratives
A process in narrative therapy of exploring strengths, special abilities, and aspirations to construct a positive story with good outcomes rather than a problem -saturated story.
108
altruism
Selflessness; concern for and dedication to the well-being of others (the opposite of egoism).
109
Alzheimer’s disease
An organic mental disease, occurring mostly in older people, characterized by disorientation, forgetfulness, confusion, and mood swings.
110
ambivalence
When an individual experiences two opposite feelings at the same time, for example, wanting help and being afraid to ask for it.
111
American Art Therapy Association (AATA)
The primary association promoting the visual arts therapies in the United States. AATA is located at 1202 Allanson Road, Mundelein, IL 60060 (847949-6064; www.arttherapy.org).
112
American Association for Counseling and Development (AACD)
The name of the American Counseling Association (ACA) from 1984 to 1992.
113
American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy (AAMFT)
The oldest and largest association for couples and family counseling in the United States, established in 1942. AAMFT is located at 112 South Alfred Street, Alexandria, VA 22314-3061 (703-838-9808; www.aamft.org).
114
American Association of Christian Counselors (AACC)
An interdisciplinary association of professional helpers, religious leaders, and lay counselors committed to integrating biblical truth with practical counseling principles. AACC’s address is PO Box 739, Forest, VA 24551 (800526-8673; www.aacc.net).
115
American Association of Pastoral Counselors (AAPC)
An association that represents and sets professional standards for pastoral counselors and pastoral counseling centers in the United States. Founded in 1963, AAPC is nonsectarian in nature and practice. AAPC is located at 9504-A Lee Highway, Fairfax, VA 22031-2303 (703-3856967; www.aapc.org).
116
American Association of Sexuality Educators, Counselors and Therapists (AASECT)
A multidisciplinary organization dedicated to informing the public about and promoting healthy expressions of human sexuality and setting standards for counseling professionals who treat sexual dysfunction. AASECT’s address is PO Box 1960, Ashland, VA 23005-1960 (804-752-0026; www.aasect.org).
117
American Association of State Counseling Boards (AASCB)
An association of state counseling boards whose members meet regularly to coordinate efforts at uniformity and discuss issues pertaining to the regulation of counseling (www. aascb.org).
118
abstract reasoning
The ability to manipulate thoughts that include dealing with situations that have not yet occurred, to use logical thought processes, and to develop symbolic meaning. For example, abstract reasoning has developed when persons can imagine what will happen if they make certain choices in life, such as following particular career paths.
119
American College Counseling Association (ACCA)
A division of the American Counseling Association (ACA) that fosters student development in higher education (www.collegecounseling.org).
120
American College Personnel Association (ACPA)
An association of professionals employed in the field of student affairs. ACPA is located at 1 Dupont Circle, Suite 300, Washington, DC 20036 (202-835-2272; www.myacpa.org).
121
American College Testing (ACT)
An independent, nonprofit organization that provides educational services to students and their parents, to high schools and colleges, to professional associations and government agencies, and to business and industry. ACT is best known for its college admissions testing program. The address is PO Box 168, 2201 North Dodge Street, Iowa City, IA 52243-0168 (319-337-1028; www.act.org).
122
American Council of Guidance and Personnel Associations (ACGPA)
A loose confederation of organizations that was concerned with educational and vocational guidance as well as other personnel activities. ACGPA operated from 1935 to 1952 and was a forerunner of the American Counseling Association (ACA).
123
American Counseling Association (ACA)
The largest professional counseling association in the world, founded in 1952. ACA is located at 6101 Stevenson Avenue, Suite 600, Alexandria, VA 22304 (703-823-9800; www.counseling.org).
124
American Counseling Association Foundation (ACAF)
A foundation that focuses on preserving and enhancing the counseling profession through work in advocacy, research, and professional standards. ACAF is located at 6101 Stevenson Avenue, Suite 600, Alexandria, VA 22304 (703823-9800; www.acafoundation.org).
125
American Dance Therapy Association (ADTA)
The primary association in the United States working to establish and maintain high standards of professional education and competence in the field of dance/movement therapy. ADTA is located at 2000 Century Plaza, Suite 108, 10632 Little Patuxent Parkway, Columbia, MD 21044 (410-997-4040; www.adta.org). See also dance/ movement therapy.
126
American Family Therapy Academy (AFTA)
An association formed in 1977 by Murray Bowen and identified as an academy of about 1,000 advanced professionals interested in the exchange of ideas in the field of family therapy. AFTA is located at 9 1608 20th Street NW, 4th Floor, Washington, DC 20009 (202-483-8001; www.afta.org).
127
American Group Psychotherapy Association (AGPA)
A psychoanalytically oriented organization established by Samuel R. Slavson in 1943. AGPA is located at 25 East 21st Street, 6th Floor, New York, NY 10010 (212-477-2677; www.agpa.org).
128
American Mental Health Counselors Association (AMHCA)
A division of the American Counseling Association (ACA) that represents and advocates for mental health counselors in many behavioral health settings. AMHCA is located at 801 North Fairfax Street, Suite 304, Alexandria, VA 22314 (800-326-2642; www.amhca.org).
129
American Music Therapy Association (AMTA)
Founded in 1998, AMTA’s purpose is the progressive development of the therapeutic use of music in rehabilitation, special education, and community settings. Predecessors of AMTA include the National Association for Music Therapy (founded in 1950) and the American Association for Music Therapy (founded in 1971). AMTA’s address is 8455 Colesville Road, Suite 1000, Silver Spring, MD 20910 (301-589-3300; www.musictherapy. org).
130
American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA)
Formed in 1952 as an interest group of the American Council of Guidance and Personnel Associations (ACGPA), APGA operated from 1952 to 1984 as an evolving professional counseling association. APGA was later renamed the American Association for Counseling and Development (AACD; 1984– 1992) and the American Counseling Association (ACA; 1992 to present).
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American Psychiatric Association (APA)
An association of medical specialists that includes physicians who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of mental and emotional illnesses and substance use disorders. APA is located at 1000 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 1825, Arlington, VA 22209-3901 (703-907-7300; www.psych.org).
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American Psychoanalytic Association (APA)
A professional organization of psychoanalysts located throughout the United States and a regional association of the International Psychoanalytical Association. APA is located at 309 East 49th Street, New York, NY 10017 (212-752-0450; www.apsa.org).
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American Psychological Association (APA)
Founded in 1892, APA is the largest professional group for psychologists in the world. APA’s address is 750 First Street NE, Washington, DC 20002 (202-336-5500; www.apa.org).
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American Rehabilitation Counseling Association (ARCA)
A division of the American Counseling Association (ACA) that is devoted to enhancing the development of people with disabilities and promoting excellence in rehabilitation counseling (www.arcaweb.org).
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American School Counselor Association (ASCA)
A division of the American Counseling Association (ACA) that promotes excellence in professional school counseling and the development of all students. ASCA’s address is 801 North Fairfax Street, Suite 310, Alexandria, VA 22314 (800-306-4722; www. schoolcounselor.org).
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American School Counselor Association national model
A model that defines what a school counselor is and clarifies the roles of school counselors for the profession and for the public. Services of school counselors revolve around academic achievement, career planning, and social/personality development.
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American Society of Group Psychotherapy and Psychodrama (ASGPP)
A professional group association established by Jacob L. Moreno in 1942. ASGPP is located at 301 North Harrison Street, Suite 508, Princeton, NJ 08540 (609-452-1339; www.asgpp.org).
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Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA)
A law enacted by Congress in 1990 that heightened awareness of the needs of the millions of people in the United States with disabilities. The ADA increased national efforts toward providing multiple services for those with mental, behavioral, and physical disabilities. This act extended to people with a disability the same protection and guarantees given to minorities in the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
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amphetamines
Also known as beans, bennies, speed, and uppers. A class of stimulant drugs that temporarily energize, increase mental alertness, produce a sense of euphoria, ward off sleep, and reduce fatigue. Amphetamines are addictive and can cause anxiety, restlessness, headaches, rapid heartbeat, and difficulty breathing.
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amplify
To emphasize statements made by the protagonist in a psychodrama. Examples include verbalizing nonverbal communications, questioning one’s self, interpreting statements for what is being said and not said, contradicting feelings, self-observing, and engaging in denial.
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anal stage
The second stage of Sigmund Freud’s stages of psychosexual development. In this stage, children (between the ages of 18 months and 3 years) obtain erotic pleasure from withholding and eliminating feces. Toilet training is a major experience during this time, and children’s personalities are influenced by the ways in which their parents respond to them as they master this task.
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analogies test
A type of test that requires respondents to complete sentences that compare different situations or things with each other (e.g., “A rose is to a bush as a leaf is to a _____”). The Miller Analogies Test (MAT) is the best known of this type of test.
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analysis
1. An abbreviated form of psychoanalysis. 2. An evaluation of a concern in counseling, such as of a client’s problem. 3. The interpretation of data through the use of statistical tests. 4. The first step in E. G. Williamson’s directive counseling approach. It involves the collection of data on a client.
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analysis of variance (ANOVA)
An inferential statistics procedure used to test the null hypothesis that the means of two or more populations are equal to each other. Often these groups represent performance on a dependent variable as a result of treatment by one or more independent variables. ANOVA can be used to test the significance of mean differences among several groups simultaneously.
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analyst
A practitioner of psychoanalysis.
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analytical psychology
Carl Jung’s approach to therapy that begins with an exploration of a client’s conscious state and proceeds to explore and interpret a client’s unconscious mind (e.g., dreams, fantasies).
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androcentricism
The practice of placing the masculine view or men at the center of one’s view of the world, culture, and history.
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androgyny
The coexistence and display of what are considered male and female characteristics in the same person. The flexible integration in a person of traditional masculine and feminine characteristics, for example, strong and gentle.
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anecdotal record
An informal notation about a person, group, family, or situation in which a standard record reporting form is not used.
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anger
1. A strong feeling of annoyance, displeasure, antagonism, irritation, or rage. 2. The second stage in the grief process as outlined by Elisabeth Kübler-Ross.
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angst
A German word meaning “anxiety” or “psychic pain.”
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anima
A Jungian archetype term for the feminine component of the male personality.
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animal-assisted therapy (AAT)
The integration of qualified animals, most commonly dogs and horses, into counseling sessions as therapeutic agents. Many clients, especially children, relate positively to animals and make significant progress in their presence. Boris Levinson is credited with discovering the therapeutic effects of AAT.
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Animal-Assisted Therapy in Counseling Competencies
This document (www.counseling.org/ docs/default-source/competencies/animal-assisted-therapy-competencies-june-2016.pdf?s- fvrsn=14) contains information on the use of animals when incorporated as an integral part of counseling, specifically in the areas of knowledge, skills, and attitudes counselors need.
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animus
A Jungian archetype for the masculine component of the female personality.
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anomie
A state of normlessness or the elimination or reduction of values, mores, norms, and codes of conduct. Anomie usually occurs in rapidly changing societies that are subject to much stress.
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anonymity
Protecting participants in a study from risk of harm by ensuring that their identities or any identifying information about them is not revealed.
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anorexia nervosa
An eating disorder that primarily affects young women; it involves an avoidance of food and severe weight loss based on a distorted perception of one’s self as being fat or overweight. Physical harm such as malnutrition or even death results from untreated anorexia.
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Antabuse
The trade name for the drug disulfram. Antabuse causes nausea when introduced into the bloodstream of someone who has consumed alcohol. It is used in recovery programs to discourage drinking in recovering alcohol abusers.
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antecedent
An event that precedes a behavior and is thought to influence it.
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antecedent– response– consequence (A-R-C) model of behaviorism
A behavioral model that proposes that behavior is functionally related to its antecedent and consequent events. Behaviors become more frequent or are suppressed depending on what precedes or follows them.
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anticathexes
A Freudian term for the control or restraint exercised by the ego over the id to keep id impulses out of consciousness.
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anticipated transitions
Normative events that are expected to occur in a somewhat predictable sequence across the life span. Leaving home, starting a job, getting married, having children, becoming an empty nester, and retiring are examples of anticipated life events.
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antidepressant
A drug such as Zoloft, Imipramine, or Prozac or an herb such as St. John’s Wort that helps to reduce or eliminate depression and improve a person’s mood. Most antidepressant medications are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
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antideterministic
A humanistic approach that proposes that each person is able to change and become responsible for his or her own life. This view is the opposite of the psychoanalytic view that psychosexual influences determine people’s behaviors.
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antisocial personality disorder
A disorder characterized by irresponsible behavior, low tolerance for frustration, frequent conflicts, lack of remorse or acknowledged responsibility for one’s actions, and a low level of socialization. Someone with this disorder is sometimes referred to as a psychopath or sociopath.
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anxiety
Mental and physical nervousness and uneasiness, often resulting in increased tension, usually associated with pressure to please, fear of failure, or fear of the unknown. Anxiety may be connected with concrete events or free floating and not attached to any one particular thing.
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anxiety disorders
Disorders characterized by anxiety and fear. Anxiety disorders take on a number of forms, including generalized anxiety, social anxiety, specific phobia, and panic disorder.
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anxiolytics
Antianxiety drugs.
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apathy
Indifference, a lack of emotion; a common symptom of depression .
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applied behavior analysis
The use of reinforcement, punishment, extinction, stimulus control, and other procedures derived from laboratory research to human interactions in a pragmatic way.
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applied research
Research conducted for the purpose of applying or testing a theory and evaluating its usefulness in solving specific client or system problems. The opposite of basic research.
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approach reaction
The tendency of an individual to move toward a situation or issue regardless of whether it is positive or negative. An approach reaction is a positive sign; people who display it tend to work through difficulties.
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appraisal
Assessing or evaluating an individual, group, family, or situation .
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approach– approach conflict
When a person must choose between two equally attractive options, for example, getting married or taking an exciting job in a new, exotic location.
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approach– avoidance conflict
When a person must choose between an option that is attractive and one that is not, for example, eating a dessert or going to the dentist.
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appropriateness
1. Behavior or conduct that is at an expected age or stage level. 2. When factors extraneous to the purpose and nature of a test, such as testing conditions, have no influence on a client’s performance or response to the test.
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approval
Support, usually given in a verbal way by a counselor, of a client’s behavior or action.
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Approved Clinical Supervisor
A specialty credential in supervision given by the National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC).
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aptitude test
A type of ability test; a standardized measurement device used to assess the readiness of someone to learn and become proficient in a given area in the future. The Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), the General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB), and the Miller Analogies Test (MAT) are examples of aptitude tests.
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Arab Americans
Individuals whose ancestors were from one of the 22 countries in the Arab Middle East that make up the League of Arab States. Arab Americans are a diverse group of 3.7 million individuals who are Christian and Muslim, foreign and native born. Mental health concerns may be reported as physical ailments, and a medical model in which the counselor is the expert may prove most effective.
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arbitrary inferences
Conclusions people make about situations without knowing facts.
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archetypes
A Jungian concept that refers to the inherited primordial images of the collective unconscious that have accumulated over generations of human experience. Major archetypes are the anima and animus. Other archetypes include the Great Mother, the Wise Old Man, the Trickster, the Divine Child, rebirth, wholeness, and God. Archetypes that influence the development of the personality include the persona, the shadow, the animus, the anima, and the self.
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arithmetic mean
The sum of a set of scores divided by the number of scores.
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Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB)
A multiple aptitude test first developed in 1966 and revised periodically since. The ASVAB measures aptitude for general academic areas and for military and civilian work. The test is used in Grade 11 and higher. Army Alpha and Army Beta tests Two of the earliest intelligence tests created in the United States. These tests were used to screen recruits during World War I. The Alpha test was given to recruits who were literate; the Beta test was given to inductees who were illiterate.
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art therapy
The systematic use of art media, images, and creative art processes as a primary or adjunct means of bringing about therapeutic change. To conduct art therapy, counselors must receive specialized training in this area.
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Artistic people
Individuals, according to John Holland’s career typology, who enjoy working in creative environments that require imagination, originality, and independence (e.g., drama, music, writing, art, dance, crafts).
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Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders
Residents of the United States whose background and identity are with peoples of Asia and the Pacific Islands (e.g., Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, Vietnamese, Korean, Samoan, Thai, and Indian). There is tremendous heterogeneity within this population. It is the third largest ethnic minority group in the United States.
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asking the question
An Adlerian counseling intervention in which clients are asked the question “What would be different if you were well?” The question is often asked during the initial interview in Adlerian counseling.
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asocial behavior
Behavior that is indifferent to people or social norms and values.
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aspirational ethics
The highest level of conduct toward which a counselor may aspire. Counselors are guided by aspirational ethics when they make choices in accordance with the higher principles behind the literal meaning of ethics codes.
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assertiveness
Asking for what one wants in a timely and appropriate manner. Assertiveness stands in contrast to either passive or aggressive behaviors.
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assertiveness training
Training designed to help either aggressive or passive people learn how to ask for what they want or need in a timely and appropriate manner. The major tenet of assertiveness training is that people should be free to express their thoughts and feelings appropriately without undue anxiety or anger. Assertiveness training involves counterconditioning through role playing and modeling as well as instruction.
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assessment
Collecting data, such as those found through administering tests or inventories, and evaluating the data and/or utilizing behavioral observations to gain information and make decisions about the diagnosis, treatment, and possible outcome of a counseling situation.
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assimilation
1. The process of becoming part of the culture in which one lives by adopting the values and norms of the majority population. 2. In Jean Piaget’s theory, the incorporation of an experience in one’s environment into an already existing thought structure. The opposite of accommodation.
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(AADA)
Association for Adult Development and Aging: A division of the American Counseling Association (ACA) that addresses concerns in counseling and development across the human life span (www.aadaweb.org).
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(AARC)
Association for Assessment and Research in Counseling: A division of the American Counseling Association (ACA). As an organization of counseling professionals, AARC provides leadership, training, and research in the creation, development, production, and use of assessment and diagnostic techniques (aarc-counseling.org). When it was chartered in 1965, AARC was known as the Association for Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance. Then it changed its name to the Association for Assessment in Counseling and Education before becoming AARC.
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(ABCT)
Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies: A professional, interdisciplinary organization that is concerned with the application of behavioral and cognitive sciences in understanding and enhancing human behavior. ABCT is located at 305 Seventh Avenue, 16th Floor, New York, NY 10001-6008 (212-647-1890; www.abct.org).
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(ACAC)
Association for Child and Adolescent Counseling: The 20th and newest division of the American Counseling Association (ACA) composed primarily of counselor educators. ACAC strives to promote greater awareness and understanding of children and adolescents among members of the counseling profession and related helping fields. As an association, it advocates for children and adolescents in community and school settings.
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(ACES)
Association for Counselor Education and Supervision: A division of the American Counseling Association (ACA) composed primarily of counselor educators. ACES emphasizes the need for quality education and supervision of counselors in all work settings (www.acesonline.net). ACES was one of four groups that founded the American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) in 1952. Its original name was the National Association of Guidance and Counselor Trainers.
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(ACC)
Association for Creativity in Counseling: A division of the American Counseling Association (ACA) that promotes creativity and the use of the creative arts in counseling (www. creativecounselor.org).
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(AHC)
Association for Humanistic Counseling: A division of the American Counseling Association (ACA) made up of counseling professionals who work in a variety of settings; whose bond is a philosophy rather than a work setting; and who use their skills and expertise to empower, advocate, and make a difference.
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Association for Humanistic Psychology
An international, multidisciplinary association of professionals who share humanistic values and are dedicated to people’s growth and positive actions (www.ahpweb.org).
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(ALGBTIC)
Association for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Issues in Counseling: A division of the American Counseling Association (ACA) that educates and promotes sensitivity among counselors on issues related to gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender clients (www.algbtic.org).
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(AMCD)
Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development: A division of the American Counseling Association (ACA) that emphasizes leadership, research, training, and development of multicultural counseling professionals. AMCD focuses on racial and ethnic issues in counseling (www.multiculturalcounseling.org). Association for Non-White Concerns (ANWC) The forerunner of the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD). ANWC was founded in 1972.
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(APT)
Association for Play Therapy: An international organization dedicated to the advancement of play therapy. APT is interdisciplinary and eclectic in orientation. APT’s address is 401 Clovis Avenue, Suite 107, Clovis, CA 93612 (559-298-3400; http://a4pt.org).
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(ASGW)
Association for Specialists in Group Work: A division of the American Counseling Association (ACA) that specializes in research and facilitating the practice surrounding counseling, psychotherapy, educational, and task groups (www.asgw.org).
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(ASERVIC)
Association for Spiritual, Ethical, and Religious Values in Counseling: A division of the American Counseling Association (ACA) that is devoted to professionals who believe that spiritual, ethical, religious, and other human values are essential to the full development of persons and counseling (www.aservic.org). assurance A statement or action on the part of a counselor that enhances client confidence and removes uncertainties (e.g., “I think you can overcome this problem in time and with work”).
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asynchronous counseling
Internet counseling in which there is a time lapse in communication between the counselor and the client, for example, e-mail and bulletin board counseling.
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at risk
People most likely to develop problems because of their background environments, genetics, and/or present behaviors are considered to be at risk. At-risk individuals often have not finished school or leave school without the necessary skills to be successful. Internal factors (e.g., a negative attitude) and external variables (e.g., poverty) play a part in making some people more at risk than others. Being at risk is charted along a continuum from minimal to high probability.
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attachment
The emotional bonds between people that develop because of dependence and attraction, especially important in early life, as in child– parent relationships.
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attachment theory
A theory that describes the processes infants go through in developing close emotional bonds with and dependence on one or more adult caregivers.
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attack on the leader
When members of a group become hostile or rebellious in regard to a leader’s authority or his or her conducting of the group. Underlying reasons for such attacks are subgrouping, fear of intimacy, and extragroup socializing.
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attending skills
Being with and communicating to a client a sincere acceptance of him or her. Physically attending behaviors such as smiling, leaning forward, making eye contact, gesturing, and nodding one’s head are microskills . They are effective nonverbal ways of conveying to clients that the counselor is interested in and open to them. Using active listening and minimal encouragers, such as “Hmm” and “Yes,” are other ways of attending.
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ADHD
A common childhood disorder that may also be diagnosed in adults that includes specific symptoms of inattention (i.e., trouble focusing), hyperactivity, and impulsivity. In addition to displaying these three major symptoms, a child or adult must meet the following criteria to be diagnosed with ADHD: (a) display several symptoms before the age of 12; (b) display symptoms in more than one setting, such as at school, at home, with friends, or during other activities; (c) show clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with his or her functioning at school, at work, or in social situations; and (d) have symptoms that are not explained by another condition, such as mood or anxiety disorders. ADHD is often treated and managed through medication and behavior therapy.
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attentiveness
The amount of verbal and nonverbal behavior shown to a client by a counselor to establish and continue rapport and show care. Attentiveness behaviors include probing, restating, summarizing, making eye contact, smiling, and leaning forward.
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attitude
A relatively stable and enduring predisposition to respond positively or negatively to a person, object, situation, institution, or event. An attitude carries a strong emotional component; when generalized, it becomes a stereotype. Attitudes emerge from cultural, familial, and personal sources.
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attractiveness
1. The physical and/or psychological similarity between a client and counselor and the appeal of that to either or both. 2. A multidimensional concept referring to group members positively identifying with others in the group.
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attribution bias
Faulty cognitive skills or reasoning that adversely affect an individual’s reactions to people and situations, such as the ideas that all women are weak or salesmen cannot be trusted.
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attribution
An explanation people assign to an event, behavior, or outcome in an attempt to understand why it occurred the way it did.
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attrition
The loss of participants during the course of a research study.
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atypical
Uncommon, unusual, or abnormal. For example, paranoid thinking is atypical.
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audience
A term used for others who may be present during a psychodrama.
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authentic happiness
The title of a book and a movement started by Martin Seligman to use positive psychology to help people realize their potential for fulfillment in life (www. authentichappiness.org).
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authenticity
The ability to be transparent, real, and genuine; to be the same inwardly as one is outwardly.
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authoritarian
A person or environment characterized by a lack of democracy and a structure of power that is punitive for those who do not comply with requirements handed down.
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authoritarian leader
A leader who envisions himself or herself an expert and retains all decision-making power. These leaders interpret, give advice, and generally direct the movement of others much like a parent controls the actions of a child. They are often charismatic and manipulative. They feed off of obedience and expect conformity.
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autism
A developmental disorder that begins before 30 months of age. Major characteristics include a lack of responsiveness to people, severe language impairment, and strong resistance to change in routine or the environment.
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automatic thoughts
1. A term used by Aaron Beck to explain the large number of thoughts that go through people’s minds so fast that they are often unaware of them and unable to stop them. 2. Personal beliefs and ideas, specific to a stimulus, that are unexamined and dysfunctional.
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autonomic nervous system
That part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that controls breathing, heart rate, and sweating.
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autonomy
1. Respecting freedom of choice, the promotion of self-determination, or the power to choose one’s own direction in life. 2. A stage in life development between ages 1 and 2 years, as defined by Erik Erikson. The focus of the stage is on acquiring self-mastery. The opposite of shame.
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autophobia
Fear of being alone.
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autoplastic approach
Adjustment to a culturally different environment —usually the dominant one— through changing oneself. The opposite of the alloplastic approach.
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auxiliary
A person in counseling who assists a counselor or a client in an enactment, such as in family counseling or psychodrama, or who functions like a counselor in a group.
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auxiliary ego
A person in a psychodrama group selected by the protagonist to represent inanimate objects, people, or pets— real or imagined, dead or alive.
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Avanta Network
Virginia Satir’s original network that revolved around teaching therapists and social workers her approach to working with individuals, groups, and families. The Avanta Network has expanded and has now become the Virginia Satir Global Network.
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average
A descriptive statistic and research term for measures of central tendency of a group of numbers. An average is expressed in three different ways: median, mean, and mode.
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aversive therapy
Behaviorally based unpleasant interventions, such as overcorrection and punishment, that are intended to suppress or eliminate negative or undesirable behaviors so that positive behaviors can be taught. Aversive therapy is used only as a last resort and with informed consent. avoidance behaviors Actions by which a client tries to ignore, deny, or escape a crisis event.
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avoidance reaction
The tendency of people to withdraw from or avoid a situation or issue that might be threatening or adversarial.
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avoidance– avoidance conflict
When a person tries to escape two equally unpleasant choices, for example, having to pay a large fine or having to go to jail.
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avoiding conflict
1. A style of coping in which a person is free from the stress that comes with conflict because he or she minimizes or denies conflict and/or does not directly address it. 2. The silencing of members who expose a group’s shortcomings or disagree with what the majority of a group thinks.
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awareness
1. An ongoing process in counseling of recognizing and being cognizant and conscious of what one is thinking as well as what one is doing, feeling, and sensing. 2. A gestalt therapy term for a total organism response.
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awfulizing
When a client irrationally believes that an inconvenience or disappointment is awful, terrible, and a major catastrophe. Albert Ellis theorized that many individuals awfulize to the point of making themselves and others miserable.
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Axes of the DSM– IV
The DSM– IV had clinicians make a diagnosis using a five-axis system. The system is no longer used. Axis I included clinical syndromes and other conditions that were focuses of clinical attention. It was thought of as the axis on which a client’s presenting problem and principal diagnosis appeared. Axis II contained diagnostic information only on personality disorders and mental limitations. Axis III contained information about general medical conditions (e.g., chronic pain) of the client. Axis IV contained information on psychosocial and environmental problems that affected the diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of mental disorders (e.g., a lack of friends, inadequate housing). Axis V gave a global assessment of functioning (GAF) for the client on a scale from 0 to 100 (higher numbers on the scale indicated a better level of functioning).
