A+P

Question 1

what is a sympathetic chain?

Answer 1

Sympathetic chain: ganglionated chain present bilaterally extending from base of skull to coccyx

Question 2

what does the sympathetic chain divide into?

Answer 2

cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral segments

Question 3

what do preganglionic sympathetic neurones release?

Answer 3

ACh

Question 4

what do postganglionic neurones release?

Answer 4

noradrenaline

Question 5

what is the function of postganglionic sympathetic neurones?

Answer 5

: vasoconstricting blood vessels, regulation of glandular secretion, inhibiting smooth muscle contraction in the GI system

Question 6

where is visceral pain felt?

Answer 6

visceral pain is felt near viscera or in a cutaneous area or other tissue whose somatic afferents enter spinal segments that receive visceral afferent form viscera

Question 7

where does the anterior and middle cerebral artery arise from?

Answer 7

internal carotid

Question 8

where does vertebral artery arise from?

Answer 8

subclavian

Question 9

on CT you can see sylvan fissure, what is located underneath?

Answer 9

temporal lobe

Question 10

what is the refractory period?

Answer 10

when na channels are closed and inactivated, no new AP can be generated  absolute refractory period

Question 11

what is the relative refractory period?

Answer 11

some Na channels are in resting state and new AP can be initiated if stimulus are strong enough

Question 12

why are the refractory periods?

Answer 12

• These mechanisms help limit rate of firing
• Prevent antidromic conduction (helps AP can go in correct directional – unidirectional)

Question 13

how does BOTOX work?

Answer 13

toxins that cleave snare proteins and prevent NT release
- no action at NMJ

Question 14

what is neuromytonia?

Answer 14

chronic muscle stiffness and hypertonia

Question 15

what is the pathology of neuro myotonia?

Answer 15

• AB created against presynaptic potassium channel
• Nerve is then in constant state of depolarisation and transmitter release

Question 16

what is the pathology of myasthenia gravis?

Answer 16

• AB targeting nicotinic AChR
• Muscle weakness and fatigability that worsens on exercise

Question 17

what is recuronium?

Answer 17

acting on NMJ
- Competitive muscle relaxants eg rocuronium  antagonise the action of Ach on nACHRs
used in anaesthetics

Question 18

what is the MOA of suxamethonium?

Answer 18

• Depolarising muscle relaxants eg suxamethonium  activate nAChRs
  anaesthetics

Question 19

how does anticholinesterases eg neostigmine work?

Answer 19

reverse effects of competitive muscle relaxants by increasing amount of Ach present of synapse

Question 20

what does the central sulcus separate?

Answer 20

frontal and parietal lobe

Question 21

what sits behind the lateral sulcus?

Answer 21

temporal lobe

Question 22

what are the functions of the frontal lobe?

Answer 22

• Higher intellect
• Personality
• Mood
• Social conduct
• Language  dominant hemisphere only

Question 23

what are the functions of the parietal lobe?

Answer 23

• Language
• Visuospatial functions eg 2 point discrimination on non dominant side

Question 24

what is seen within frontal lobe pathology?

Answer 24

personality/ behavioural changes, inability to solve problems

Question 25

what is seen within parietal lobe pathology?

Answer 25

attention deficits eg contralateral hemispatial neglect syndrome  patint does not pay attention to side of body opposite to lesion

Question 26

what is seen within temporal lobe pathology?

Answer 26

recognition deficits not understanding basic sounds failure to recognise faces

Question 27

what is agnosia?

Answer 27

recognition deficits

Question 28

what is auditory agnosia?

Answer 28

inability to comprehend basic sounds

Question 29

what is prosopagnosia?

Answer 29

inability to recognise faces

Question 30

what would be seen within occipital lobe pathology?

Answer 30

visual field defects contralateral hemianopia

Question 31

what would occur within global lesions?

Answer 31

: severe cognitive defects eg dementia  patients can not answer simple questions like their name, date, location

Question 32

what is aphasia?

Answer 32

acquired loss of language and ability to verbally communicate language

Question 33

what is the function of brocas area?

Answer 33

associated with speech production and articulation - Articulate ideas and use words correctly - Spoken or written language

Question 34

how would pathology of Broca's area present?

Answer 34

can understand but can not find correct words will be irritated

Question 35

what is the function of wernickes area?

Answer 35

involved in comprehension - Language processing - Written or spoken

Question 36

how would wernickes area pathology present?

Answer 36

can find words but can not understand and then reply with fluent nonsense will be okay - they do not relaise they are talking nonsense

Question 37

what is global aphasia?

Answer 37

damage in both brocas and wernickes area

Question 37

what occurs in the angular gyrus?

Answer 37

multiple types of language related info whether auditory, visual or sensory - Allows us to associate a perceived word with different images, sensations and ideas - Close to parietal lobe which processes tactile sensation

Question 38

describe features of global aphasia

Answer 38

- All aspects and speech and language are affected - Can only understand a few phrases and words - Can not read or write or repeat words said to them - Can not carry out commands or name objects

Question 38

what structures is the angular gyrus close to?

Answer 38

occipital - visual analysis temporal lobe - processing sounds

Question 39

what is the function of the cerebellum?

Answer 39

motor control active in coordination, precision, timing of movement s

Question 40

what does the hindbrain consist of?

Answer 40

lower brainstem - cerebellum, pons and medulla

Question 41

what is the function of the hindbrain?

Answer 41

fundamental to survival - Respiratory rhythm - Motor activity - Sleep - Wakefulness

Question 42

what is the function of spinocerebellum?

Answer 42

- Regulating body movements by allowing for error correction - Proprioceptive movements

Question 43

what is the function of vestibulocerebellum?

Answer 43

- Controlling balance and ocular reflexes - Fixation on targets - Inputs from vestibular and sends outputs back

Question 44

what does the pyramidal descending tract do?

Answer 44

voluntary control of musculature of body and face

Question 45

where do the extrapyramidal tracts run within descending tracts?

Answer 45

originate in brainstem and carry info to spinal cord

Question 46

what is the function of extrapyramidal tracts?

Answer 46

- Involuntary and automatic control of musculature eg muscle tone, balance, posture and locomotion

Question 47

what are the meninges?

Answer 47

membranous covering of brain and spinal cord

Question 48

what are the three layers of the meninges?

Answer 48

DAP dura mater arachnoid mater pia mater

Question 49

what are the functions of meninges?

Answer 49

- Supportive framework for cerebral and cranial vasculature - Acting with cerebrospinal fluid to protect CNS from mechanical damage

Question 50

describe the dura mater layer?

Answer 50

outermost layer and located underneath bones of skull and vertebral column - Thick, tough and inextensible - Has two layers of connective sheets: periosteal layer and meningeal layer

Question 51

where are the Dural venous sinuses located?

Answer 51

venous drainage of cranium and empty into jugular vein

Question 52

describe arachnoid layer

Answer 52

middle layer - Consists of connective tissue, avascular and has no innervation - Underneath is sub-arachnoid space

Question 53

what is located underneath sub-arachnoid space?

Answer 53

CSF

Question 54

what does pia mater cover?

Answer 54

very thin follows contours of brain - gyri and fissures

Question 55

what does the basal ganglia do?

Answer 55

- Acts to modulate and refine cortical activity eg controlling descending motor pathways reduces a lot of excitatory input

Question 56

what is white matter?

Answer 56

axons

Question 57

what is grey matter?

Answer 57

cell bodies

Question 58

why is it important that the basal ganglia reduces excitatory input?

Answer 58

to prevent excessive/ exaggerated movements