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a&p exam #2 Flashcards

1
Q

definition of ossification

A

the formation of bone matrix

the hardening of soft tissue into bone

the process of laying down new bone material by osteoblast cells

begins 6th&7th week of embryonic development and continues until age 25

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2
Q

define osteopenia

A

a condition in which there is a lower than normal bone mass or bone mineral density

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3
Q

define osteoporosis

A

a condition in which there is a decrease in the amount & thickness of bone tissue

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4
Q

describe the steps of bone fracture

A

INFLAMMATORY STAGE: body sends special cells to injured area which causes area to become inflamed and then other cells form a hematoma around the broken bone

REPARATIVE STAGE: about a week after injury, a soft callus replaces the hematoma. over the next few weeks the callus becomes harder

REMODELING STAGE: around 6 weeks after injury, regular bone replaces hard callus.

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5
Q

dynamic movements of skeleton

A

FLEXION

EXTENTION

HYPEREXTENSION

ABDUCTION

ADDUCTION

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6
Q

types of fractures

A

TRANSVERSE FRACTURE: straight line break across bone

SPIRAL FRACTURE: spirals around bone

GREENSTICK FRACTURE: partial fracture (mostly in kids)

COMPRESSION FRACTURE: when bone gets crushed

POTTS FRACTURE: ankle fracture

DISPLACED FRACTURE: ends of bone out of alignment

EPIPHYSEAL FRACTURE: fracture that occurs where bone matrix is undergoing calcification/ chondrocytes are dying

COMMINUTED FRACTURE: bone shatters, many fragments

COLLES FRACTURE: break at distal portion of radius

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7
Q

describe the hormones that impact bone growth

A

GROWTH HORMONE: produced by pituitary gland and stimulates bone growth by stimulating protein synthesis and rate of cell division

THYROXINE: from thyroid gland, stimulates bone growth by stimulating cell metabolism & increasing rate of osteoblast activity

SEX HORMONES: stimulate osteoblasts to produce bone faster than epiphyseal cartilage expands which closes growth plates

PARATHYROID HORMONE: from parathyroid glands

CALCITONIN: from c cells of thyroid glands

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8
Q

relationship between calcitonin, calcitriol, PTH & how they maintain blood calcium levels

A

Calcitriol helps increase blood circulation levels and calcitonin helps decrease blood calcium levels.

Calcitriol participates with PTH to stimulate osteoclastic bone resorption

Calcitonin counteracts effects of PTH & Calcitriol

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9
Q

Nutritional needs and effects on bone

A

MINERALS: bones need source of calcium & phosphorus for normal growth

CALCITRIOL/VITAMIN D: essential for normal calcium & phosphorus absorption in digestive tract

VITAMIN C: required for certain enzymatic reactions in collagen synthesis, also stimulates osteoblast differentiation

VITAMIN A: stimulates osteoblast activity

VITAMIN K&B: helps with synthesis of protein in bone

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10
Q

remodeling/homeostatic mechanisms of the skeletal system

A

bone remodeling continuously recycles & renews organic 3 mineral components of bone matrix.

remodeling replaces the matrix

older mineral deposits are removed from bone & released into the circulation at the same time that circulating minerals are absorbed & deposited

involves osteoblasts and osteoclasts

regulates calcium homeostasis and repairing micro-damage to bones from everyday stress

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11
Q

functions of the skeletal system

A

SUPPORT

STORAGE OF MINERALS/LIPDS

BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION

PROTECTION

LEVERAGE

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12
Q

major cell types in bone and their functions

A

OSTEOCYTES: maintain protein & mineral content of surrounding matrix

OSTEOGENIC CELLS: maintain populations of osteoblasts $ repair fractures

OSTEOBLASTS: make & release proteins/organic components of the matrix

OSTEOCLASTS: absorbs & removes bone matrix

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13
Q

steps of endochondral ossification

A

STEP 1: mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes and form the cartilage model for bone

STEP 2: chondrocytes near center of cartilage model undergo hypertrophy & alter contents of the matrix they secrete which enables mineralization

STEP 3: chondrocytes undergo apoptosis due to decreased nutrient availability; blood vessels invade & bring osteogenic cells

STEP 4: primary ossification center forms in the diaphyseal region of periosteum, called the periosteal collar

STEP 5: secondary ossification centers develop in the epiphyseal region after birth

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14
Q

steps or intramembranous ossification

A

-begins when osteoblasts differentiate within fibrous connective tissue

-osteoblasts become entrapped by the osteoid that they secure, transforming them to osteocytes

-spongy bone and periosteum form

-compact bone forms superficially to the spongy bone

-blood vessels form the red marrow

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15
Q

cell types in bone

A

OSTEOGENIC CELLS: stem cells whose divisions produce osteoblasts

OSTEOBLASTS: immature bone cells, secrete organic compounds

OSTEOCYTES: mature bone cells, maintains bone matrix

OSTEOCLASTS: secretes acids & enzymes to dissolve bone matrix

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16
Q

sutural bone definition, shape, & example

A

a synarthrotic joint located between bones of skull. edges are interlocked together by dense fibrous connective tissue

SHAPE: small, flat & oddly shaped

EXAMPLE: found between flat bones of skull

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17
Q

bone structure of flat bone

A

one layer of spongy bone within two layers of compact bone surrounding the spongy bone

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18
Q

structure of long bone

A

spongy bone

compact bone

epiphysis (proximal and distal)

diaphysis

metaphysis

epiphyseal like

medullary cavity

yellow bone marrow

red bone marrow

endosteum

periosteum

articular cartilage

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19
Q

components of bone matrix

A

CALCIUM PHOSPHATE: 2/3 of bone weight (67%)

TYPE 1 COLLAGEN: (organic matter) 33%

calcium phosphate and calcium hydroxide form hydroxyapatite

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20
Q

sesamoid bone shape & example

A

SHAPE: small, round, and flat

EXAMPLE: near joints of knees, hands, & feet
(sesamoid patellae)

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21
Q

long bone shape & example

A

SHAPE: long and slender

EXAMPLE: arm & thigh

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22
Q

flat bone shape & example

A

SHAPE: thin parallel surfaces

EXAMPLE: form roof of skull & sternum

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23
Q

short bone shape & example

A

SHAPE: box like

EXAMPLE: carpal and tarsal bones

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24
Q

irregular bone shape & example

A

SHAPE: complex shapes with flat, short, notched or ridged surfaces

EXAMPLE: pelvis & vertebrae

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25
ossification vs. calcification
ossification specifically means the conversion of connective tissue into bone tissue (is a process of laying down new bone material by osteoblasts) calcification means the depositing of calcium salts that build up in soft tissue, causing it to harden
26
structure of periosteum & functions
STRUCTURE: membrane with a fibrous outer layer and cellular inner layer FUNCTION: isolates the bone from surrounding tissues, provides a route for the blood vessels and nerves & takes part in bone growth & repair
27
structure of endosteum & function
STRUCTURE: incomplete cellular layer that lines the medullary cavity. covers trabeculae of spongy bone and lines inner surfaces of central canals of compact bone. Simple flattened layer of osteogenic cells that cover bone matrix FUNCTION: causes bone growth, repair and remodeling
28
major parts of an osteon
CENTRAL CANAL: contains one or more blood vessels PERFORATING CANAL: extend perpendicular to surface (transports nutrients to bone tissue) LAMELLAE: forms series of nested cylinders around central canal (gives bone hardness and ridgity) CANALICULI: small duct that interconnects the lacunae of osteons (provides routes for nutrients to reach osteocytes and wastes to leave osteocytes) LACUNAE: small cavity in bone that encases osteocytes (provide home for cells in bone)
29
bone structure of compact vs. spongy bone
COMPACT: relatively solid, forms sturdy protective layer that surrounds medullary cavity (wall of diaphysis) SPONGY: open network of struts and plates that resembles latticework (in epiphyses)
30
definition of calcification
a process in which calcium builds up in the body causing the tissue to harden
31
major types of joints & functions
SYNOVIAL JOINT: highly mobile, allow for free movement BALL & SOCKET JOINT: allows backwards, sideways, forward and rotating movement SADDLE JOINT: allows two degree movement CARTILAGINOUS JOINT: allows more movement between bones than fibrous joints but less than synovial joint HINGE JOINT: allows flexion and extension in one plane CONDYLOID JOINT: modified ball and socket joint that allows for flexion, extension, abduction and adduction FIBROUS JOINT: provide protection for internal organs and weight bearing stability PIVIOT JOINT:permits rotation around single axis (ex. wrist) AMPHIARTHROSIS: allows small amounts of mobility PLANE JOINT: allows for gliding movement SYNARTHROSIS: immovable joint. provides strong connection between adjacent bones
32
define ossification
the process by which osteoblasts produce new bone matrix. osteoblasts make & release proteins & other organic components of the matrix. osteoblasts also help increase local concentrates of calcium phosphate above its solubility limit which triggers deposition of calcium salts into organic matrix. before calcium salts are deposited, the organic matrix is called osteoid process converts osteoid to bone. osteocytes develop from osteoblasts that have become completely surrounded by bone matrix.
33
what is osteoarthritis
(degenerative joint disease) generally effects those 60+ and may be from cumulative wear and tear at joints or genetic factors affecting collagen formation
34
what is rheumatoid arthritis
inflammatory condition that affects more woman than men occurs when immune response mistakenly attacks joint tissue. when body attacks own tissue and is known as an auto immune disease
35
what is gouty arthritis
crystals of uric acid form within the synovial fluid of joints. accumulation eventually interferes with movement the cause is unknown but is age related to change in articular cartilage
36
common synovial joint accessory structures and their function
MENSCI: pads of fibrocartilage between the bones in joints. menisci may subdivide synovial cavity, channel flow of synovial fluid or allow variations in shapes of articular surfaces FAT PADS: localized masses of adipose tissue covered by synovial membrane. they protect articular cartilages & act as packing material for joints. BURSAE: provide a gliding surface and a cushion for soft tissues LIGAMENTS: strengthen and support the joint by anchoring the bones together and preventing their separation.
37
why is the elbow joint so stable?
it’s extremely stable because the bony surface of the humerus & ulna interlock a single articular capsule surround both the humeroulnar & proximal radioulnar joints strong ligaments reinforce the articular capsule
38
gliding movement at synovial joint
two surfaces sliding past one another. occurs between surface or articulating carpal bones, tarsal bones, & between clavicles & the sternum. can occur in any direction but only slight movement rotation is prevented by capsule & associated ligament
39
angular movement at synovial joint
Angular movements are produced when the angle between the bones of a joint changes. flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction and circumduction
40
flexion at synovial joint
movement in anterior-posterior plane that decreases angle between articulation bones
41
extension at synovial joints
occurs in the same plane but increases angle between articulating bones
42
major type of joints by structure
FIBROUS CARTILAGINOUS BONY: forms when fibrous of cartilaginous joints ossify SYNOVIAL
43
basic structure of a synovial joint
two layer joint capsule surrounds synovial joint. joint capsule contains inner synovial membrane & outer fibrous capsule this membrane does not cover the articulating surfaces within joint synovial membrane consists of areolar tissue covered by an incomplete epithelial layer
44
structure of fibrous joint
These joints are also called immovable joints because they do not move. Fibrous joints have no joint cavity and are connected by fibrous connective tissue made of mainly collagen The skull bones are connected by fibrous joints called sutures.
45
structure of cartilaginous joints
type of joint where the bones are entirely joined by cartilage, either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage. These joints generally allow more movement than fibrous joints but less movement than synovial joints.
46
structural classification of synovial joints
HINGE: elbow SADDLE: carpometacarpal joint PLANAR: acromioclavicular joint PIVIOT: atlantoaxial joint CONDYLOID: metapophalangeal joint BALL AND SOCKET: hip
47
definition of trochanter
a large proximal projection on a bone
48
4 different kind of projection bone markings
HEAD FACET CONDYLE RAMUS
49
three kind of bone markings
depressions elevations tunnels
50
what are bone markings
points of muscle/tendon attachments that allow vessels and nerves through way and where other bones articulate
51
what is the bone marking where tendons and ligaments attach & where adjacent bones articulate(joints)
elevations
52
6 kind of depression and opening bone markings
MEATUS SINUS GROOVE FISSURE FORAMEN FOSSA
53
a calcified skeletal muscle is an example of
heterotopic bone formation
54
what happens when levels of calcium ions are elevated in the blood
they stimulate the secretion of calcitonin hormone
55
protein-crystal interactions
allow bone to be strong, somewhat flexible and highly resistant to shattering
56
what is the most abundant cell type in bone
osteocytes
57
what does parathyroid hormone do
stimulates osteoclast activity increases rate of calcium absorption decreases rate of calcium excretion raised blood calcium ion levels
58
what is a foramen
rounded passageway for passage of blood vessels/nerves
59
what is formed by intramembrabous ossification
FLAT BONES the roof of skull clavicle
60
what does intramembranous ossification begin with
differentiation of mesenchymal cells
61
important steps of endocondral ossification
Chondrocytes enlarge and the surrounding matrix begins to calcify. Enlarged chondrocytes die. Blood vessels grow around the edges of the cartilage. Perichondrial cells become osteoblasts and produce a superficial layer of bone. Osteoblasts replace calcified cartilage with spongy bone.
62
where are osteogenic cells located
inner cellular layer of the periosteum
63
where does secondary ossification occur
in the epiphyses
64
cells that free calcium from bone to maintain blood calcium levels
osteoclasts
65
what are the joints between vertebrae
amphiathrosis
66
is a synovial membrane considered an accessory structure
NO
67
what is the medial surface of the knee reinforced by
tibial collateral
68
ligaments that limit the anterior/posterior movement of the tibia and maintain alignment of femoral and tobias condyles
cruciate
69
what kind of joints are intercarpal articulations
gliding joint
70
Syndesmosis is to ligament as symphysis is to
fibrous cartilage
71
Dense fibrous connective tissue is to a suture as a periodontal ligament is to a(n)
gomphosis
72
definition of pronation
rolling the distal epiphysis of the radius over ulna inward rotation of forearm
73
A ligamentous connection such as an antebrachial interosseous membrane is called a
syndesmosis
74
A joint where bones fuse together with bone tissue is called
synostosis
75
The intervertebral disc joint is called
symphysis
76
Dense fibrous connective tissue is to a suture as a periodontal ligament is to a(n)
gomphosis
77
which is the mature bone cell
osteocytes
78
what is the parent of bone builder cells
osteogenic cells
79
which bone cell is the bone builder
osteoblasts
80
which bone cell is responsible for bone resorption
osteoclasts
81
which bone cell is stimulated by PTH
osteoclasts
82
which bone cell is inhibited by calcitonin
osteoclasts
83
who is the target when calcitonin is released
KIDNEY INTERSTITIAL LINING OSTEOCLASTS OSTEOBLASTS
84
who’s the target when is PTH released
KIDNEY OSTEOCLASTS INTERSTITIAL LINING
85
which movement happens when moving from standing to sitting position
flexion at hip and knee joint
86
what movement happens when doing a full jumping jack
upstroke abduction at shoulder and hip downstroke adduction at shoulder and hip flexion and extension at knee for jumping
87
which movement happens when laying flat and doing a sit up
flexion at hip, knee and along spine
88
what movement happens when turning a door knob
flexion at shoulder flexion at fingers supination
89
SYNARTHROSIS JOINTS (nearly immobile)
FIBROUS *suture* *gomphosis* CARTILAGINOUS *synchondrosis* BONY FUSION *synostosis*
90
gomphosis joints
fibrous connection plus insertion of alveolar processes located between teeth and jaw
91
Synchondrosis
interposition of cartilage plate example: epiphyseal cartilage
92
Synostosis
conversion of other articular form to a solid mass of bone example: portions of skull, bony fusion
93
Amphiarthrosis (little movement)
FIBROUS *syndesmosis* CARTILAGINOUS *symphysis*
94
syndesmosis
ligamentous connection between tibia and fibula
95
symphysis
connection by fibrocartilage pad example: intervertebral discs
96
diarthrosis (free movement)
PLANES OF MOVEMENT monaxial: movement @ one plane *ex. ankle* biaxial: movement @ 2 planes *ex. wrist* triaxial: movement in 3 planes ex. shoulder
97
diarthrosis synovial
Complex joint bound by joint capsule containing synovial fluid ex. ends of long bone
98
intramembranous ossification vs. endochondral ossification
in intramembranous ossification, bone develops directly from sheets of mesenchymal connective tissues. forms flat bones of the skull, clavicle and most cranial bones in endochondral ossification, bone develops by replacing hyaline cartilage. form all long bones
99
BONES OF AXIAL SKELETON AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
80 BONES IN AXIAL SKELETON SKULL(8 cranial& 14 facial): *protection & structure* 6 OSSICLES: *transmission of sound waves* HYOID BONE: *carries weight of tongue* THORACIC CAGE(sternum & 24 ribs) : *protects heart and lungs) VERTEBRAL COLUMN (24 vertebrae, sacrum & coccyx) *protects and supports spinal cord*
100
CRANIAL BONES
Frontal(1) PARIETAL(2) OCCIPITAL(1) TEMPORAL(2) SPHENOID(1) ETHMOID(1) *8 cranial bones total*
101
FACIAL BONES
NASAL(2) LACRIMAL (2) INFERIOR NASAL CONCHA (2) MAXILLA(1) MANDIBLE(1) VOMER(1) ZYGOMATIC (2) PALATINE(1) *14 FACIAL BONES TOTAL*
102
paranasal sinuses function
open into nasal cavity lined with cells that make mucus
103
NASAL COMPLEX:
FRONTAL BONE *frontal sinuses* ETHMOID BONE *ethmoid sinus* NASAL BONE MAXILLA PALATINE BONE SPHENOID *sphenoidal sinus* SUPERIOR NASAL CONCHA MIDDLE NASAL CONCHA INFERIOR NASAL CONCHA *maxillary sinus*
104
structural differences of skull in infants vs adults
INFANT SKULL: frontalle(where bone hasn’t fused together yet) ^covered by membrane to protect ADULT SKULL: have suture lines that show where the different skull bones have fused together.
105
spinal curvatures and their functions
*PRIMARY CURVE DEVELOPS BEFORE BIRTH SECONDARY AFTER BIRTH* CERVICAL CURVE: secondary curve, develops as infant learns to balance weight of its head on vertebrae of neck THORACIC CURVE: primary curve, provides room for thoracic organs LUMBAR CURVE: secondary curve, balances weight of trunk over lower limbs SACRAL CURVE: primary curve, provides room for abdomiopelvic organs
106
VERTEBRAL REGIONS
CERVICAL(7) - small bodies THORACIC(12) -thicker bodies than cervical(giraffe) LUMBAR(5)-thickest bodies (moose) SACRUM(5 fused) COCCYX(4 fused)
107
significance of thoracic and rib articulations
maintains position of vertebral column, protects heart and lungs, attachment point for muscles involved with breathing
108
APPENDICULAR SKELETON BONES
PELVIS PECTORAL GIRDLE HUMERUS SCAPULA CLAVICLE CARPAL BONES METACARPALS PHALANX RADIUS ULNA FIBULA PATELLA FEMUR SACRUM TIBIA ILLUM TARSALS METATARSALS ISCHIUM ACROMION CALCANEUS
109
bones that form pectoral girdle and their functions
clavicle: increased range of motion of shoulders away from body (acromial end and sternal end) scapula: allows full functional upper extremity movement
110
bones of upper limb
HUMEUS: RADIUS: METACARPALS: PHALANGES: CARPALS:
111
BONES OF PELVIC GIRDLE
ilium ischium pubis The main functions of the pelvic girdle are to transfer the weight of the upper body to the lower limbs when sitting or standing, and provide attachment points for muscles that help with locomotion and posture.
112
bones of lower limbs
TIBIA FIBULA TARSALS FEMUR The lower limb serves a vital role in locomotion, standing, and supporting our weight.
113
male vs female pelvis
MALE: adapted to fit more massive and sturdy body architecture. narrower pelvis that’s heavier and thicker WOMAN: wider and broader pelvis with less prominent ischial spines and helps woman through pregnancy and childbirth
114
what can study of skeleton show about individual
changes in shape, size and density can indicate disease or trauma / unbalanced hormone and nutrients levels
115
skeletal differences between man and woman
male skulls are heavier and bone is thicker. muscle attachment is more defined than females females have longer torsos to accommodate the reproductive organs
116
aging process on skeletal system
bones become more brittle and break easier due to loss of collagen, decrease in production of growth hormone, calcium & decrease in protein synthesis
117
basic structure of synovial joint
the ends of bones are encased in smooth articular cartilage. Together, they are protected by a joint capsule lined with a synovial membrane that produces synovial fluid. The capsule and fluid protect the cartilage, muscles, and connective tissues.
118
articulations between vertebrae of the verbretal column
The articulating surfaces of adjacent vertebral bodies attach to each other by intervertebral discs in addition to numerous ligaments.

a&p 1 (11 decks)

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