A&P II Chapter 22 Respiratory

Question 1

What is respiration?

Answer 1

Ventilation of Lung (breathing)
exchange of gases between air and blood
use of O2 in cellular metabolism (cellular respiration)

Question 2

Name the organs of respiration

Answer 2

Nose, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Lungs

Question 3

a)What parts of respiratory tract constitute conducting division and respiratory division

Answer 3

Constitute Conducting: Passage serve only for airflow, nostrils to bronchioles

Respiratory Division: Alveoli and distal gas-exchange regions

Question 4

What parts of respiratory tract constitute upper respiratory and Lower respiratory tract.

Answer 4

Upper Respiratory: Organs in head and neck, trachea through larynx

Lower Respiratory: Organs of the Thorax, trachea through lungs

Question 5

How nasal septa is formed (bones and cartilage)

Answer 5

• superior half: nasal bones medially & maxillae laterally
• inferior half: lateral and alar cartilages
• ala nasi: flared portion shaped by dense CT, forms lateral wall of each nostril

Question 6

How many conchae and meatus found in the nasal cavity. What is the function of meatus.

Answer 6

• Superior, middle and inferior nasal conchae
– 3 folds of tissue on lateral wall of nasal fossa

• Meatuses
– narrow air passage beneath each conchae
– narrowness and turbulence ensures air contacts mucous membranes – this cleanses, warms, and humidifies the inhaled air

Question 7

What is epistaxis? Which nasal conchae involves in epistaxis.

Answer 7

– inferior concha is the most common site for spontaneous epistaxis (nosebleed)

Question 8

What is the name of common pathway for both food and air.

How many parts of pharynx?

Name important structures of nasopharynx and oropharynx.

Answer 8

Pharynx

3 region,

Nasopharynx : posterior to choanae, dorsal to soft palate, passes air only, receives auditory tubes and contains pharyngeal tonsil

Oropharynx: extends proximally from soft palate superiorly and root of tongue inferiorly to distally as far as the hyoid bone; anteriorly has the fauces (opening of oral cavity to pharynx) – contains palatine and lingual tonsils

Question 9

Which structure guards glottis during swallowing?

What is the name of folds that close glottis during swallowing?

Answer 9

Larynx

Epiglottis

Question 10

How many cartilages consist of larynx?

What is laryngeal prominence?

Which cartilage involves in laryngeal prominence.

Answer 10

9 Cartilages

Adam’s apple, a feature of the human neck, refers to the lump

Thyroid cartilage - largest,

Question 11

Which part of respiratory tract is called wind pipe?

Answer 11

Trachea

Question 12

Trachealis muscle is found in which part of respiratoty tract.

Answer 12

Trachea

Question 13

Which epithelium lined larynx, trachea and bronchial tree.

Answer 13

ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Question 14

Name the surfaces of a lung.

How many lobes right and left lungs have?

Answer 14

Has apex; concave base, costal surface; mediastinal surface, cardiac impression, hilum, Root

Right has 3 Lobes
Left has 2 Lobes

Question 15

What is hilum?

Name the structures passes through a lung hilum.

Answer 15

Mediastinal surface has a slit – the “hilum” through which blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves etc enter the lungs; these structures at the hilum makes the “root” of the lung

Question 16

What is bronchial tree?

Bronchial tree extends from where to where.

Answer 16

• The spongy parenchyma of the lungs have a highly branched air conducting pathway
• extends from the primary bronchus to terminal bronchioles

Question 17

What is bronchopulmonary segment?

Answer 17

portion of lung supplied by each tertiary bronchi

Question 18

What is alveolus?

Name three important cells found in the lung alveoli.

Answer 18

small cavity, pit, or hollow, in particular.
tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.

Type I pneumocyte (Squamous Alveolar) cells that form the structure of an alveolar wall.
Type II pneumocyte (Great Alveolar) cells that secrete pulmonary surfactant to lower the surface tension of water and allows the membrane to separate, thereby increasing the capability to exchange gases. Surfactant is continuously released by exocytosis. It forms an underlying aqueous protein-containing hypophase and an overlying phospholipid film composed primarily of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine.
Macrophages that destroy foreign material, such as bacteria.

Question 19

What is pleura?

Name two layers of pleura?

Function of pleura and pleural fluid.

Answer 19

• serous membranes lining the thorax and enveloping the lungs
• visceral and parietal layers
• reduction of friction
• creation of pressure gradient
• lower pressure assists in inflation of lungs
• compartmentalization by pleura and pericardium
• prevents spread of infection

Question 20

What are the two important factors responsible for ventilation.

Answer 20

inspiration and expiration

Question 21

Name muscles of ventilation/respiration.

Name one of the important muscle of respiration that involves in both inspiration and expiration.

Answer 21

Diaphragm, Scalene, External intercostal, Pectorals minor, sternocleidomastoid and erector spinae muscles

intercostal,

Question 22

In respiration (inspiration/expiration) which process is active and which process is passive.

Answer 22

Inspiration is an active process

expiration is a passive process

Question 23

What is Pneumothorax?

Effect of pneumothorax.

Answer 23

Presence of air in pleural cavity

loss of negative intrapleural pressure causes the lungs to recoil and collapse,

Question 24

What is atelectasis?

Answer 24

Collapse of lung (or part of lung)

Question 25

Name the factors that causes resistance to airflow in the lungs (only name)

Answer 25

pulmonary compliance | distensibility of the lungs

Question 26

What is pulmonary surfactant? What is its composition? Function of surfactant.

Answer 26

* Surface tension of water in the alveoli and distal bronchioles, that is necessary for gas exchange, resists inspiration and promotes expiration * This surface tension would act to collapse alveoli and distal bronchioles * Pulmonary surfactant released from the great alveolar cells disrupt hydrogen bonds of water and  surface tension * As passages contract during expiration, surface tension naturally  and surfactant concentration  preventing alveolar collapse * Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) in premature infants is due to a deficiency of surfactant – treated by administering artificial surfactant

Question 27

What is alveolar ventilation rate (AVR). Amount of ventilation rate.

Answer 27

air that actually ventilates alveoli X respiratory rate | directly relevant to body’s ability to exchange gases

Question 28

What is Spirometer and Spirometry? Why we measure ventilation?

Answer 28

Spirometer: Device a subject breathes into that measures ventilation and determines pulmonary function Spirometry: measuring of breath It helps assess and distinguish between restrictive and obstructive lungs disorders.

Question 29

Name four respiratory volumes. What is tidal volume and its total amount.

Answer 29

– tidal volume: – inspiratory reserve volume: – expiratory reserve volume: – residual volume: – tidal volume: air inhaled or exhaled in one quiet breath 500ml

Question 30

Name four respiratory capacities. What is vital capacity and its total amount?

Answer 30

_vital capacity: − inspiratory capacity − functional residual − total lung capacity vital capacity: amount of air that can be exhaled with maximum effort after maximum inspiration; assess strength of thoracic muscles and pulmonary function 4700ml

Question 31

Variations in the Respiratory Rhythm ->

Answer 31

Apnea: temporary cessation of breathing one or more shipped breaths. Dyspnea: Labored gasping breathing shortness of breath Hyperpnea: Increased rate and depth of breathing in response to excerise pain other condition Hyperventilation: Increased pulmonary ventilation in excess of metabolic demand, anxiety, expels co2 faster than its produced, lowering the blood CO2 concentration and raising the blood PH Hypoventilation: reduced pulmonary ventilation leads to increase in blood CO2 Kussmaul respiration: Deep rapid breathing by acidosis seen in diabetes mellitus Orthopnea: Dyspnea that occurs when a person is lying down or any position other than standing, Respiratory arrest; Permanent cessation of breathing unless there is medical intervention Tachypnea: Accelerated respiration

Question 32

Name factors that affect respiratory volumes and capacities.

Answer 32

* Age: lung compliance, respiratory muscles weaken * Exercise: maintains strength of respiratory muscles * Body size: proportional, big body has large lungs * Restrictive disorders: compliance and vital capacity * Obstructive disorders: interfere with airflow, expiration requires more effort or less complete

Question 33

Name two respiratory nuclei of medulla oblongata and two respiratory nuclei of pons and their functions.

Answer 33

Medulla Oblongata–inspiratory center (dorsal respiratory group or DRG – I neurons) more frequently they fire, more deeply you inhale longer duration they fire, breath is prolonged, rate is slower pons- – pneumotaxic center• sends continual inhibitory impulses to inspiratory center that controls the rate and depth; as impulse frequency rises, breathe faster and shallower– apneustic center • prolongs inspiration, role unclear

Question 34

Composition of atmospheric air and alveolar air.

Answer 34

* Composition of Air: In a mixture of gases, each contributes its partial pressure, (at sea level 1 atm. of pressure = 760 mmHg) – nitrogen constitutes 78.6% of the atmosphere, PN2 = 78.6% x 760 mmHg = 597 mmHg – PO2 = 159, PH2O = 3.7, PCO2 = 0.3 mmHg (597 + 159 + 3.7 + 0.3 = 760) * Alveolar air is different from atmospheric air because it is humidified, it exchanges gases with blood, and mixes with residual air contains: PN2 = 569, PO2 = 104, PH2O = 47, PCO2 = 40 mmHg

Question 35

Name factors that affect gas exchange (name only).

Answer 35

* Concentration gradients of gases air * Gas solubility * Membrane thickness * Membrane surface area * Ventilation-perfusion coupling

Question 36

How o2( Oxygen) transport in the blood and how co2 (Carbondioxide) transport in the blood.

Answer 36

Oxygen Transport • Concentration in arterial blood – 20 ml/dl, (98.5% bound to hemoglobin, 1.5% dissolved in plasma) • Binding to hemoglobin – each heme group of 4 globin chains may bind 4 O2 molecules – oxyhemoglobin (HbO2 ), deoxyhemoglobin (HHb) Carbon Dioxide Transport : it is transported • As carbonic acid - 90% – CO2 + H2O  H2CO3  HCO3- + H+ • As carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO2)- 5% binds to amino groups of Hb (and plasma proteins) • As dissolved gas - 5%

Question 37

What is repiratory acidosis and how it is corrected.

Answer 37

• Respiratory acidosis (pH < 7.35) caused by failure of pulmonary ventilation – hypercapnia (PCO2) > 43 mmHg (Normal __________) – corrected by hyperventilation, pushes reaction to the left (pH increases) by “blowing off ” CO2. More and more H+ will join HCO3- to make H2CO3 that will break down and release CO2. CO2 (expired) + H2O  H2CO3  HCO3- + H+

Question 38

What is respiratory alkalosis and how it is corrected.

Answer 38

``` • Respiratory alkalosis (pH < 7.35) – hypocapnia (PCO2) < 37 mmHg – corrected by hypoventilation, pushes reaction to the right (pH decreases) CO2 + H2O  H2CO3  HCO3- + H+ –  H+, lowers pH to normal ```

Question 39

Effects of blood chemistry (PH, CO2 and O2) on respiration

Answer 39

• pH imbalances can be due to metabolic causes such as diabetes mellitus that can lead to diabetic ketoacidosis. ``` Effects of Carbon Dioxide • Indirect effects – through pH as seen previously • Direct effects –  CO2 may directly stimulate peripheral chemoreceptors and trigger  ventilation more quickly than central chemoreceptors ``` ``` Effects of Oxygen • Usually little effect • Chronic hypoxemia, PO < 60 mmHg, can significantly stimulate ventilation – emphysema, pneumonia – high altitudes after several days ```

Question 40

What is hypoxia and different types.

Answer 40

• Hypoxia: is a deficiency of oxygen in a tissue or the inability to use oxygen. – hypoxemic hypoxia - usually due to inadequate pulmonary gas exchange • high altitudes, drowning, aspiration, respiratory arrest, degenerative lung diseases, CO poisoning – ischemic hypoxia - inadequate circulation – anemic hypoxia - anemia – histotoxic hypoxia - metabolic poison (cyanide) – cyanosis - blueness of skin due to hypoxia – primary effect of hypoxia is tissue necrosis, organs with high metabolic demands affected first

Question 41

Name chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases.

Answer 41

• Asthma - allergen triggers histamine release, intense bronchoconstriction • Other COPD’s usually associated with smoking (don’t deny it) – chronic bronchitis • cilia immobilized and  in number, goblet cells enlarge and produce excess mucus, sputum formed (mixture of mucus and cellular debris) which is ideal growth media for bacteria, chronic infection and bronchial inflammation develops – emphysema • alveolar walls break down, much less respiratory membrane for gas exchange, lungs fibrotic and less elastic, air passages collapse and obstruct outflow of air, air trapped in lungs

Question 42

Name different types of lung cancer. | Which type is most common and which type is dangerous.

Answer 42

* Squamous-cell carcinoma (most common) * Adenocarcinoma * Small-cell (oat cell) carcinoma – least common (most dangerous)

Question 43

The nasal cavity is divided by the nasal septum into reigh and left

Answer 43

fossae

Question 44

the intrinsic laryngeal muscles regulate speech by rotating

Answer 44

the arytenoid cartilages

Question 45

the largest air passages that engage in gas exchanges with the blood are

Answer 45

the respiratory bronchioles

Question 46

Respiratory arrest would most likely result from a tumor of the

Answer 46

medulla oblongata

Question 47

which values would normally be the highest

Answer 47

vital capacity

Question 48

The ________protects the lungs from injury by excessive inspiration

Answer 48

inflation reflex

Question 49

according to __________the warming of air as it is inhaled helps to inflate the lungs

Answer 49

Charles law

Question 50

poor blood circulation causes________hypoxia

Answer 50

ischemic

Question 51

Most of the CO2 that diffuses from the blood into an alveolus comes from

Answer 51

carbonic acid

Question 52

the duration of an inspiration is set by

Answer 52

The pneumotaxic center

Question 53

The superior opening into the larynx is guarded by a tissue flap called

Answer 53

epiglottis

Question 54

Within each lung, the airway forms a branching complete called the

Answer 54

bronchial tree

Question 55

The great alveolar cells secrete a phospholipid protein mixture called

Answer 55

pulmonary surfactant

Question 56

Intrapulmonary pressure must be lower than________pressure for inspiration to occur

Answer 56

atmospheric

Question 57

___disorders reduce the speed of airflow through the airway

Answer 57

obstructive

Question 58

some inhaled air does not participate in gas exchange because it fills the _________of the respiratory system

Answer 58

anatomical dead space

Question 59

Inspiration depends on the ease of pulmonary inflation called_______--whereas expiration depends on ______which causes pulmonary recoil

Answer 59

compliance and elasticity

Question 60

Inspiration is caused by the firing of I neuron in the _______of the medulla oblongata

Answer 60

Ventral Respiratory group

Question 61

The matching of airflow to blood flow in any region of the lungs is called

Answer 61

ventilation perfusion coupling

Question 62

A blood PH 7.45 is called________and can be caused by a CO2 deficiency called_______--

Answer 62

Alkalosis and hypocapnia