A01 terminology Flashcards
(294 cards)
1
Q
abstract nouns
A
refer to ideas that only exist in the mind
2
Q
accent
A
the distinct pronunciation patterns in groups of people
3
Q
accommodation
A
where a speaker adopts another speaker’s accent, dialect or sociolect
4
Q
acronomy
A
abbreviation using the first letter of a group of words and pronounced as a single word e.g. NASA, OPEC, RAM
5
Q
active voice
A
clause construction where the subject is also the actor (they are doing or have done something to somebody/something)
6
Q
adjacency pair
A
a pair of utterances in a conversation that go together (greeting and reply, question and answer, etc.)
7
Q
adjective
A
a word that modifies the noun (e.g. the ORANGE sky)
8
Q
adverb
A
a word that modifies the verb telling you how, where or when an action takes place; can also modify adjectives, telling you how much (e.g. I am REALLY delighted)
9
Q
adverbial
A
words, phrases or clauses which act as adverbs and which identify where, when and how when modifying the verb
10
Q
affordance
A
linguistic and behavioural choices provided by technology
11
Q
agenda setting
A
where a speaker sets up the main topic of conversation
12
Q
analogical overextension
A
associating objects which are unrelated but which have one or more features in common (e.g. both being the same colour)
13
Q
anchored relationship
A
an online relationship where two participants know each other in the offline world
14
Q
article
A
a determiner such as ‘a’ or ‘the’
15
Q
asymmetrical power
A
an imbalance of power between people
16
Q
asynchronous
A
unlike synchronous, there is a delay between utterance and response, responses posted on a forum, which may occur months or even years after the original post, are an example of discourse that is asynchronous
17
Q
audience
A
the person or people reading or hearing the text
18
Q
auxiliary verb
A
assists the main verb; primary auxiliary verbs do, have and be denote changes of tense
19
Q
avatar
A
an image used by a user that accompanies a username
20
Q
backchanelling
A
supportive terms such as ‘oh’ and ‘really’
21
Q
bald on-record
A
where a speaker is completely blunt and direct (e.g. ‘sit down!’)
22
Q
bias
A
a form of prejudice in favour of or against an idea, person or group, expressed through languages/images and so on. It can take obvious or implicit forms, or a mixture of the two, and can arise from what is omitted as well as what is stated or shown
23
Q
bidialectalism
A
a speaker’s ability to use two dialects of the same language
24
Q
categorical overextension
A
the most commonly occurring form of overextension in a child’s language, and relates to confusing a hypernym (broad category e.g. fruit) with a hyponym (specific example)
25
catenative
chain-like structure in a sentence ('so we...and then...and then we...')
26
chaining
a speaker responds and sets up the other speaker's next utterance in a chain that runs past an adjacency pair
27
child-directed speech (CDS)
speech patterns used by parents and carers when communicating with young children
28
clause
a structural unit that contains at least one subject and one verb - it can include other features as well such as object, complement and adverbial
29
closer
spoken expressions that are designed to close
30
codification
a process of standardizing language
31
cohesion
the many parts of a text that help to draw it together into a recognisable whole (for example, the headline, picture and caption in a news article will all have words/images that link together in terms of the meaning and subject matter of the article
32
collocation
two or more words that are often found together in a group or phrase with a distinct meaning (e.g. 'over the top', 'fish and chips', 'back to front')
33
comparative adjective
the form of an adjective that designates comparison between two things, generally by adding the suffix -er to its base form (e.g. 'this is a FASTER car')
34
complement
a clause element that tells you more about the subject or object
35
complex sentence
has two or more clauses, one of which is a subordinate clause
36
compound
a word formed from two other words (e.g. 'dustbin')
37
compound sentence
has two or more clauses, usually joined to the main clause by the conjunctions 'and' or 'but' and depends on the main clause to exist
38
compound-complex sentence
a sentence that has three or more clauses, one of which will be a subordinate clause and one of which will be a coordinate clause
39
concrete nouns
refer to things we touch or can experience physically (e.g. snow, butter)
40
morpheme
the smallest grammatical unit
41
free morpheme
a morpheme that can stand on its own as a word
42
affix (bound morpheme)
a morpheme that cannot stand on its own as a word, but combines with others to create a new word
43
phrase
a group of words centred around a head word
44
head word
the central word in a phrase which gives the phrase its name (e.g. noun phrase, adjective phrase) and may be modified by other words
45
modification
the adding of additional words to provide more detail to a head word in a phrase either before it (pre modification) or after it (post modification)
46
clause
a group of words centred around a verb, which may either be grammatically complete (main clause) or incomplete (subordinate clause)
47
active voice
a clause where the agent (doer) of an action is the subject
48
passive voice
a clause where the patient (the entity affected by an action) is in the subject position, and the agent either follows or is left out
49
tense
how the time of an event is marked (usually through verb inflection): past, present and future
50
aspect
another element of marking the time of an event, by specifying whether they are progressive (ongoing) or perfective (completed)
51
coordination
the joining of two or more independent clauses via coordination conjunctions, single word and longer phrases can also be coordinated
52
subordination
the joining of two or more phrases where only one is independent (the main clause) and the others dependent (subordinate clauses)
53
sentence
a larger unit of meaning , which may be formed of a single clause (simple sentence), or several clauses (compound or complex sentences), minor sentences are sentences without a verb
54
sentence function
the purpose a sentence fulfils in communication: as a statement, question, command or exclamation. These are also referred to as declaratives, interrogatives, interrogatives, imperatives and exclamatives
55
word class
the grammatical category into which words can be placed, including noun, adjective, verb, adverb, determiner, pronoun, preposition, conjunction
56
Adverb of manner
(-ly), tells you how an action occurred
57
Preposition
Connects a noun/pronoun to a verb or adjective (time/place/direction)
58
Modal auxiliary
Subclass of auxiliary verbs, they express modality e.g. must, should, can
59
Noun phrase
A noun accompanied by pre or post modifiers
60
Imperative verb
Command
61
Abstract noun
The name of thing that is not physical e.g a feeling or emotion
62
Concrete noun
The name of a physical object
63
Superlative adjective
Expresses the largest extent of something
64
Pronoun
Identifies the subject
65
Declarative sentence
Statement
66
Conditioning
The process by which humans are taught or trained to respond and learn by positive enforcement (e.g. praise from an adult) for whatever is deemed to be appropriate learning within that specific context - for choosing a correct word or for politeness
67
conjunction
a word that joins clauses together
68
connotation
the associated meanings we have with certain words, depending on the person reading or hearing the word, and on the context in which the word appears
69
consonant clusters
groups of consonants (e.g. str or gl) that demand more muscular control than single consonants or vowels, so tend to appear later in the baby's utterances
70
constraints
linguistic and behavioural restrictions provided by technology
71
context
where when and how a text is produced or received
72
convergence
where a speaker moves towards another speaker's accent, dialect or sociolect
73
cooing
sounds a baby will make like 'goo' and 'ga-ga' generally around the age of 6-8 weeks, it is believed that during this period the child is discovering their vocal chords
74
coordinate clause
a clause beginning with a coordinating conjunction and is essentially a main clause joined to another main clause
75
coordinating conjunction
signal the start of a coordinating clause
76
copular verb
a verb that takes a complement (such as seems, appears or a form of the verb to be - is, was, are etc.)
77
corpus
a collection of written texts
78
covert prestige
describes high social status through the use of non standard forms (small group)
79
declarative
a statement - a type of sentence which gives more information and where the subject typically comes in front of the verb (two fish were in the tank)
80
definite article
the
81
deixis
terms that point towards something and place the words in context
82
what are examples of temporal deixis?
the day before, the previous week, the next day, yesterday, last week, tomorrow, this week, today, now
83
what are examples of spatial deixis?
over there, yonder, there, that, those, here, this, these
84
what are examples of personal deixis?
they, their, it, its, she, her, his, he , you, your, I, me, we, us
85
denotation
the literal, generally accepted definition of a word
86
determiner
words determining the number or status of the noun (e.g. definite article, indefinite articles 'a and an', demonstratives 'this that these those', pronouns and possessives, quantifiers 'a few, too much, many', numbers)
87
dialect
a non standard variety of language, including lexis and grammar, particular to a region
88
direct object
the part of the clause that is directly acted upon by the subject
89
discourse
describes the structure of any text (or segment of text) that is longer than a single sentence
90
discourse markers
marks a change in an extended piece of written or spoken text (e.g. nevertheless, to sum up etc.)
91
dismissal formula
a device used to close a conversation
92
dispreferred response
a response that is unexpected, although not necessarily rude if phrased appropriately (e.g. Speaker A: dinners ready at 7/ Speaker B: Not dinner, I've only just had breakfast)
93
divergence
where a speaker actively distances himself/herself from another speaker by accentuating their own accent or dialect
94
downward convergence
making your accent or lexis more informal
95
estuary English
a dialect of English that is perceived to have spread outwards from London along the South East of England, it has features of RP and London English
96
Etymology
the history of a word, including the language it came from, if appropriate, and when it began to be regularly used
97
exophoric reference
a reference to something, often cultural, beyond the text
98
extra-linguistic variables
factors that affect the way you speak (e.g. age, where you live, etc.)
99
feral children
children who are raised without human intervention
100
field
words used in a text which relate to the text's subject matter
101
flouts a maxim
where someone obviously does not obey the conversational maxims that have been suggested by Grice
102
formality
describes the degree to which texts stick to certain conventions and how impersonal they are, the more spoken features a text has the more informal it will tend to be
103
framing
controlling the agenda of the conversation (its direction and subject), or making utterances that encourage a child to fill in the blanks
104
French/Latinate lexis
words derived from French or Latin, or both that are more rarely used; often seen as having a higher status, and/or being more specialist
105
genre
the kind of text you have in front of you (advert,speech,song)
106
gestural
a way of communicating that relates to movement and/or body language, either instead of words or (as would be likely in a multi modal media text) in addition to them
107
glottal stops
a form of stop consonant made at the back of the throat to replace the t sound
108
grammar
the building blocks of sentences (words, phrases, clauses, etc.) and how they go together to mean something to the reader or the listener
109
grammarian
a scholar of grammar
110
grapheme-phoneme relationship
the correspondence between the written shape of a letter and its sound
111
head noun
the main noun at the centre of a noun phrase
112
high-frequency lexis
words that appear often in everyday speech
113
holophrase
a single word representing a more complex thought generally created by a child, for example the word juice may be used to signify 'i want some juice' - in this context juice would be a holophrase, up is another example often signalling please lift me up or i want to get up
114
hospitality token
a polite utterance relating to context designed to put speakers at their ease
115
hyperlink
an electronic link embedded in a text that takes the reader to another website
116
hypernym
categories e.g. pets, vehicles and sweets
117
hyponym
examples within categories e.g. pony, truck and sherbet lemons
118
idiom
a form of common non-literal expression e.g. 'I was dead on my feet'
119
idiolect
your own individual way of speaking
120
illocutionary act
implying something in what we say
121
imperative
a command - a type of sentence where the subject is usually left out and the verb is in its bare form ('Give the hat to me')
122
indirect object
receives the action
123
inflection
an ending such as -ed, -s or -ing added to change a tense or number, or in the case of nouns to make it plural
124
infographic
a graphical format which can also be animated to display information e.g. in mini blogs
125
initialism
abbreviation using the first letter of a group of words and pronounced separately e.g. FBI, CIA, DVD
126
interrogative
a question - a type of sentence indicated by swapping round of subject and verb ('are you happy?' rather than 'you are happy'), by the use of question words (who, what, where, when, how), or by the use of a question mark (you're coming by train?)
127
intertextuality/intertextual reference
a subtle reference to another text that helps to create a sense of shared context and can operate on a pragmatic level, creating a sense of imagined closeness between writer and reader
128
intonation
the pitch (how high or low you are in your vocal range)
129
irregular verbs
change their form when changing from present to past tense (e.g. swim/swam)
130
isogloss
the divisions that linguists draw between regions according to different dialects
131
juxtaposition
the placement of two contrasting ideas or things next to each other
132
labelling
the process of attaching words to object; as the child learns more about the world their capacity to connect words with an increasing range of objects grows
133
left branching sentence
has the subordinate clause or clauses before the main clause
134
lexical field
identifies the main subject matter of a text e.g. food in a recipe, money in an article on economics
135
lexicon
the vocabulary of a language
136
lexis
words and their origins
137
linear
a text in which the discourse is organised into some sort of sequence e.g. a narrative with a beginning, middle and end, there may be an implied expectation that the reader will read the text in the order in which it appears
138
loanword
an English word that has come into use having been borrowed from another language
139
locutionary act
saying something
140
low-frequency lexis
words that appear more rarely such as specialist terms for a field e.g. medicine
141
main clause
a clause that can stand on its own grammatically
142
main verb
the verb that carries the main meaning or process in a verb phrase (and therefore in a clause/sentence)
143
mainstream dialect
the dialect that spans the whole English nation
144
manner
used to express how formal or informal a text is
145
manner maxim
a co-operative principle relating to what you say so that you avoid being obscure or ambiguous and be orderly
146
marked
refers to words that are ascribed less prestige than the standard or unmarked form (e.g. gendered terms such as goddess and ladette)
147
metatalk
explicit talk about grammar and language
148
minor sentence
a sentence that has some missing elements, such as the subject or the verb, making it technically ungrammatical
149
mixed mode
features of speech and writing in the same text
150
modal auxiliary verb
a sub category of auxiliary verb that expresses degrees of possibility, probability, necessity or obligation
151
mode
texts can be in spoken mode (e.g. spontaneous conversation between friends) or written mode (e.g. an English essay) or mixed mode (e.g. a political speech will be written but delivered as a speech)
152
modification
description in the form of words, phrases or whole clauses that alters our understanding of the ting being described
153
modifier
any word that describes a noun (can be an adjective, adverb or noun)
154
morphological derivation
the process of creating a new word out of an old word or affix (e.g. the suffix -ly changes adjectives into adverbs - nice becomes nicely)
155
multimodal
a text that uses more than one mode; often used for texts that have a combination of text and images
156
negative face
our desire to avoid doing something we don't want to do, such as giving money to a stranger, this is part of Goffman's ideas about face
157
negative politeness
a more indirect, hedged approach, often using negative constructions (e.g. 'You couldn't take the bin out for me, could you?' ) This is linked to theories of face
158
neologism
a newly formed or coined word
159
network building
having labelled objects, children start to identify connections between them, recognising similarities and differences
160
neutral comment
speaker makes a comment on something neutral in the surroundings such as the weather
161
nonce formation
a 'nonsense' new word that is created for a special occasion (e.g. just before lunch 'feeling hungryish' might be used)
162
non-finite subordinate clause
clauses in which the verb is not 'finished' and the tense is therefore not shown (e.g. clauses with to- infinitives like 'to buy some cheese' or with an -ing form of the verb such as in 'running down the road')
163
non-linear
a text with no expected sequence for reading - the cohesion may be less obvious and this may be reflected in the layout (e.g. more use may be made of features such as text boxes and hyperlinks than if the text was linear)
164
noun phrase
a group of words with a noun at the centre of it
165
nouns
words which name people, places, things, ideas and concepts
166
number homophones
where numbers are used to replace all or part of a word whose sound they resemble, usually within the context of an electronic text (e.g. 2 for to or gr8 for great)
167
object
this normally receives the action and comes after the verb
168
object permanence
the ability of a baby to recognise that an object still exists even when they cannot actually see it, thus it requires the capacity to form a mental representation of the object
169
off record
in conversation where no threat is made to someone's face ('this room's pretty messy isn't it')
170
orthographical
the methodology for writing a language including features such as spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, etc
171
orthography
the spelling convention of a language
172
other-related comment
speaker comments about another speaker (e.g. 'you look like you need a drink')
173
overextension
widening the meaning of a word so that it extends to apply not just to the actual object but also to other objects with similar properties or functions
174
over-generalisation
the over application of rules about the formation of words
175
overt prestige
refers to a dialect used by a culturally powerful group
176
pace
the speed at which you talk
177
packaging
in trying to ascertain the boundaries of the label the child sometimes confuses hypernyms and hyponyms, giving rise to over and under extensions
178
passive voice
clause construction where the subject is not the actor (they have had or are having something done to them)
179
periodic sentence
a complex sentence in which the main clause is saved until the end (e.g. 'the minister, who was usually late in the mornings, except on those occasions when she had been working all night, was already at her desk')
180
perlocutionary act
what happens in response to what is said (i.e. what is understood)
181
phatic talk
speech which is really just designed to maintain social relationships and does not carry a significant meaning, often used to start a conversation (e.g. 'hi there (.) how are you?')
182
phonemic contraction
the sounds a child can make are reduced so that they can only make the sounds of their own language
183
phonemic expansion
an increase in the variety of sounds a child can produce
184
phonetics
the study of how we produce particular sounds (e.g. 't' and 'd' are stop consonants, produced by stopping the flow of air at the alveolar ridge, just behind the top teeth)
185
phonology
the study of the sound system in the language and the effects of its particular features (i.e. looking at consonants, vowels, rhythms, stresses, pace)
186
polysemic
describes a word with more than one meaning (e.g. set can refer to a set of cutlery, a tennis set, what happens to jelly and so on)
187
polysemy
many meanings in a word
188
positive face
our need to maintain self-esteem, positive face is threatened when we are criticised in any way
189
positive reinforcement
when a behaviour is rewarded and therefore encouraged to be repeated
190
possessive determiner
determiner which shows who the noun belongs to (e.g. my book)
191
positive politeness
an informal approach that assumes the other party will agree ('I think that just about wraps it up, don't you?') this is linked to theories of face
192
post-modified
the modification that comes after the head noun (or after a phrase or clause)
193
post-telegraphic stage
in the post telegraphic stage, the child's early reliance on lexical (content) words gradually expands to include auxiliaries, prepositions, and articles, e.g. 'Mummy car' evolves to 'Mummy is in the car', timing of this shift varies but 30 months approximately is likely
194
pragmatic failure
where the meaning that is implied is not the meaning that is understood by the listener
195
pragmatics
what we really mean by what we say or write in a given context OR can refer to the contextual aspects of language use
196
predicate overextension
conveying meaning that relates to absence (e.g. making the utterance 'cat' when looking at the cat's empty bed)
197
pre modified
modification that comes before the head noun (or before a phrase or clause)
198
preposition
a word which shows how elements in a sentence or clause relate to each other in time or space
199
pre-start
a word or phrase made to clear the air before a turn begins (e.g. 'well...')
200
primary verbs
be, have, do
201
privation
the absence of social relationships
202
productive vocabulary
the term used to describe the words a person (not necessarily a child) is able to use, either in speech or writing
203
pronoun
a word which stands in place of a noun or noun phrase (usually used to avoid repetition of the noun)
204
proper nouns
words for specific people or places (e.g. Swindon)
205
prosodics
how we use rhythm, stress, intonation and pace in speech to create particular effects
206
proto-words
clusters of sounds (e.g. da) that represent the baby's attempt to articulate specific words when their motor coordination is still in early stages of development
207
pun
a play on words, often using multiple meanings of words for effect (e.g. 'A man walks into a bar "ouch!"')
208
purpose
describes why the text was produced or uttered (to entertain, to persuade, to inform, to advice etc.)
209
quality maxim
a cooperative principle that requires that you do not say what you believe to be false
210
quantity maxim
a cooperative principle that requires you are careful in what you say, be just as informative as needed and no more
211
recasting
the rephrasing and expanding of a child's utterance
212
received pronunciation (RP)
a prestige form of English pronunciation
213
receptive vocabulary
relates to words a person recognises/understands and is likely to be larger than their productive vocabulary
214
reduplicated monosyllable
the repetition of a sound such as 'baba'
215
register
the type or variety of language that the writer or speaker has chosen to use (e.g. formal register, medical register, academic register etc.)
216
regular verbs
take a regular -ed inflection when changing from present to past tense (e.g. walk/walked)
217
relation maxim
a co-operative principle that requires that you make what you say relevant to the last speakers turn
218
representation
language used to present an impression of ourselves, or of an event, company or institution (like your school or college) to the wider world
219
scaffolding
a form of linguistic support whereby adults, through their interactions, provide the child with conversational material and patterning (e.g. the parent might say 'What did we buy at the shop today? Did we buy apples?', thus providing the child with some key lexis and grammar structures, supporting them in continuing the conversation)
220
self-related comment
speaker makes a comment about themselves (e.g. 'I'm run off my feet')
221
semantic field
a pattern of words with similar meanings found across a text or texts (e.g. bolt, trap, cage)
222
semantic shift
the change in a meaning of a word
223
semantics
meanings of words, both on their own and in relation to other words in the text
224
semiotics
the study of signs and symbols; considering not only the ways in which words work but also by considering images, sounds, music and patterns
225
simple sentence
only has one clause
226
sociolect
a variety of language that is characteristic of the social background or status of its user
227
standardisation
the process of forming a uniform language codified in dictionaries, educational and government texts that demands conformity by all variant language forms
228
stress
where volume is raised to place emphasis on a particular syllable
229
subject
this normally performs the action of the sentence or clause and can be a singular word or a phrase
230
subordinate clause
depends on the main clause to exist
231
subordinating conjunctions
these signal the start of a subordinate clause
232
superlative adjective
expresses the highest level of the quality represented by the adjective, generally made by adding -est to the base form (e.g. the fastest car)
233
synchronicity
events that occur simultaneously, such as communication
234
synchronous
at the same time; a face to face conversation would be an example of synchronous discourse
235
synonym
a word that has a similar meaning to another word (e.g. malady and illness)
236
syntax
the order of the elements in a clause or sentence (subject, verb, object, etc.)
237
tag question
an interrogative clause added to the end of a declarative to make it into a question (e.g. we're meeting for lunch today, aren't we?)
238
telegraphic stage
usually associated with language development in infants of approximately 24-36 months, this term refers to speech that resembles an old-fashioned telegram, generally characterised by the omission of auxiliary verbs and determiners and with a focus on lexical essentials (e.g. 'daddy get milk' or 'ben feed ducks')
239
topic management
the way topics in a conversation are organised or handed from speaker to speaker - can also be known as agenda setting
240
transition relevance place (TRP)
the point at which one turn is ending and another turn is signalled
241
turn construction unit (TCU)
a fundamental segment of speech in conversation analysis
242
turn-taking
the process of taking turns in a conversation, where only one speaker speaks at a time
243
two-word stage
usually occurs around the age of 18 months to two years and refers to a child's ability to start producing utterances which use words in combination this will often take the form of subject and verb (e.g. doggie gone) but variation of syntax is possible, as the child begins to shape meaning -sometimes using intonation as well (e.g. mummy come (statement), mummy come? (question) and come mummy (command))
244
underextension
when the meaning ascribed to a word used by a child which is narrower than the meaning it has in adult language; using a hyponym instead of a hypernym e.g. a child may use the word cat instead of pet
245
upward convergence
changing your accent or lexical choices to something you perceive as more prestigious
246
valediction
expression of farewell
247
verb
the action or state in the sentence or clause (can be a single word or verb phrase)
248
vernacular
everyday regional language spoken by people
249
vernacular writing
informal, non-standard writing
250
violates a maxim
subtle failure of someone to observe a maxim (e.g. going on a bit too long on a topic)
251
vocative
directly expressing someone via'to someone in conversation by their name
252
Phoneme
The basic unit of sound
253
Dipthong
A vowel sound that is the combination of two separate sounds, where a speaker glides from one to another
254
Voicing
The act of the vocal cords either vibrating (voices) or not vibrating (unvoiced) in the production of a consonant sound
255
Place of articulation
The position in the mouth where a consonant sound is produced
256
Manner of articulation
The extent to which airflow is interrupted by parts in the mouth in the production of consonant sounds
257
Syllable
A sound unit with a vowel at its centre
258
Accent
A regional variety of speech that differs from other regional varieties in terms of pronunciation
259
Accommodation
The ways that individuals adjust their speech patterns to match others
260
Sound iconicity
The use of the sound system to mirror the form or meaning
261
International phonemic alphabet
An internationally recognised system of phonetic transcription
262
Denotative and connotative meanings
The literal (denotative) and associated (connotative) meanings of words
263
Figurative language
Language uses in a non-literal way in order to describe something in another’s terms (e.g. simile or metaphor)
264
Semantic fields
Groups of words connected by a shared field of reference, e.g. medicine, art
265
Synonyms
Words that have equivalent meanings
266
Antonyms
Words that have contrasting meanings
267
Hypernyms
Words that label categories e.g. animal, which includes for example dog, cat and rabbit
268
Hyponyms
Words that can be included in a larger, more general category (e.g. the hyponyms car, bus, aeroplane as a form of the hypernym transport)
269
Levels of formality
Vocabulary styles including slang, colloquialisms, taboo, formal and fixed levels
270
Occupational register
A technical vocabulary associated with a particular occupation or activity
271
Sociolect
A language style associated with a particular social group
272
Dialect
A language style associated with a particular geographical region
273
Neology
The process of new word formation, including the following: blends, compounds, acronyms, initialisms, eponyms
274
Semantic change
The process of words changing meaning, including the following: narrowing, broadening, amelioration, peroration, semantic reclamation
275
Morpheme
The smallest grammatical unit
276
Free morpheme
A morpheme that can stand on its own as a word
277
Affix (or bound morpheme)
A morpheme that cannot stand on its own as a word, but combines with others to create a new word
278
Phrase
A group of words centred around a head word
279
Head word
The central word in a phrase which gives the phrase its name (e.g. noun phrase, adjective phrase) and may be modified by other words
280
modification
the adding of additional words to provide more detail to a head word in a phrase either before or after
281
clause
a group of words centred around a verb, which may be either grammatically complete (main) or incomplete (subordinate)
282
implicature
an implied meaning that has to be inferred as a result of a conversational maxim being broken
283
inference
the process of deriving implied meanings
284
irony
using language to signal an attitude other than what has literally been expressed
285
deixis
words that are context bound where meaning depends on who is being referred to, where something is happening or when it is happening
286
speech acts
communicative acts that carry meaning beyond the words and phrases used within them, for example apologies and promises
287
politeness
the awareness of others' needs to be approved of and liked (positive politeness) and or given freedom to express their own identity and choices (negative politeness)
288
discourse markers
words, phrases or clauses that help to organise what we say or write e.g. OK, so, as I was saying
289
adjuncts
non essential elements of clauses (usually adverbials) that can be omitted
290
disjuncts
sentence adverbs that work to express an attitude or stance towards material that follows e.g. frankly or sadly
291
narrative structures
how events, actions, and processes are sequenced when recounting a story
292
layout
the way a text is physically structured
293
typographical features
the features of fonts used in texts such as font type, size and colour
294
orthographical features
the features of the writing system such as spelling, capitalisation and punctuation
