AC2.3 Flashcards
1
Q
What do Social Structure theories focus on?
A
They focus on the structure of society, its organization, equality or inequality, and the cause of conflict and division.
2
Q
According to Durkheim, what is the basis of a stable society?
A
A stable society is based on shared norms, values, and beliefs (value consensus) about right and wrong.
3
Q
What is anomie according to Durkheim?
A
Anomie is a state of normlessness where shared rules of behaviour are weekend, often due to the presence of many subcultures with differing values.
4
Q
What are the important functions of crime according to Durkheim?
A
- Boundary maintenance: unites society against wrongdoers.
- Social change: challenges existing norms for societal progress.
- Warning light: indicates societal dysfunction.
- Safety Valve: lower-level crimes can prevent more serious crimes.
5
Q
How did Nelson Mandela’s actions illustrate Durkheim’s view on social change?
A
Mandela’s opposition to apartheid was initially seen as deviance, but it eventually led to significant social change when apartheid was overthrown.
6
Q
What is a limitation of Durkheim’s Functionalist Theory regarding crime?
A
Durkheim wrote about crime in very general terms and did not distinguish between different types of crime, which may overlook harmful crimes that are dysfunctional.
7
Q
Why is it problematic to view all crime as functional according to Durkheim?
A
It can be insensitive to consider harmful crimes like terrorism and sex offences as serving an important function in society.
8
Q
What does Durkheim suggest about the criminal justice system?
A
He suggests that it benefits everyone by punishing criminals and reinforcing norms, but this view ignores the unequal treatment of different social classes.
9
Q
How does class affect the punishment of criminals according to the evaluation of Durkheim’s theory?
A
The rich and powerful may receive more favorable treatment and can often avoid punishment, while poorer individuals face harsher consequences.
10
Q
What does Durkheim fail to explain about crime?
A
He does not explain the root causes of crime, such as inequality based on race, gender, and class.
11
Q
What is Merton’s Strain Theory?
A
Merton argues that society promotes material success as a goal, but not everyone has legitimate means to achieve it, leading to strain, especially in the working class.
12
Q
What is the main conflict described in Merton’s Strain Theory?
A
The conflict arises between the societal goal of material success and the inability of some individuals, particularly in the working class, to achieve it through legitimate means.
13
Q
What does Merton’s Strain Theory suggest about the working class?
A
It suggests that the working class experiences strain due to their limited access to qualifications and jobs needed to achieve material success.
14
Q
What is the role of shared norms in Durkheim’s view of society?
A
Shared norms create social solidarity and conformity, which are essential for societal stability.
15
Q
How does crime serve as a ‘warning light’ in society?
A
Deviance indicates that society is not functioning properly, highlighting underlying social issues.
16
Q
What is the ‘safety valve’ concept in relation to crime and who was it proposed by?
A
Lower-level crimes can act as a safety valve by preventing serious crimes, such as the use of prostitutes preventing rape or murder.
It was proposed by Kingsley Davies in 1967.
17
Q
What is the significance of boundary maintenance in Durkheim’s theory?
A
Boundary maintenance reinforces shared values and rules by uniting society against those who violate them.
18
Q
What is a criticism of the idea that crime is necessary for society to function?
A
Some crimes may be so harmful that they cannot be justified as functional, challenging the notion that all crime serves a purpose.
19
Q
What does Durkheim’s theory imply about the inevitability of crime?
A
Durkheim suggests that crime is inevitable due to the presence of individuals who are not properly socialized.
20
Q
What does the term ‘value consensus’ mean in Durkheim’s theory?
A
Value consensus refers to the agreement among members of society on what is considered right and wrong.
21
Q
How does Durkheim’s theory relate to social solidarity?
A
Social solidarity arises from shared norms and values, leading to conformity and a stable society.
22
Q
A
23
Q
What are the five ways of responding to strain according to Merton?
A
Conform, innovate, ritualistic, retreatists, rebels.
24
Q
What is an example of the ‘conform’ response to strain?
A
Get a job and earn money; example: lawyer.
25
What does 'innovate' response to strain involve?
Wanting money but adopting a criminal or non-conventional way to get it; example: drug dealer.
26
What characterizes the 'ritualistic' response to strain?
Having the job but not wanting the money; example: non-profit charity worker.
27
What exemplifies the 'retreatists' response to strain?
Those who don't have the job and don't want the money; example: homeless person.
28
What are the goals of 'rebels' in response to strain?
They have different goals such as respect, infamy, or being feared, and different ways of achieving them; example: gang leader.
29
What is a strength of Merton's theory regarding its application?
It can be applied to any contemporary, Western, developed capitalist society.
30
What is a counterargument to Merton's theory regarding applicability?
It may not explain crime in countries without capitalism, such as Venezuela, which has a high crime index despite being socialist.
31
What limitation does Merton's theory have regarding types of crime?
It over-predicts working-class crime and does not account for white-collar crime, technological crime, and state crime.
32
What type of crime does Merton's theory fail to explain?
Non-utilitarian crime, such as fighting or vandalism, which do not aim for monetary gain.
33
What do Marxists believe causes crime in capitalist society?
The unequal structure of capitalist society causes crime.
34
What are the two classes in capitalist society according to Marxism?
The bourgeoisie (ruling class) and the proletariat (working class).
35
What does 'criminogenic' mean in the context of Marxist theory?
Capitalism is seen as crime-causing.
36
How does capitalism lead to utilitarian crimes?
It pushes consumer goods through advertising, leading people to commit theft to obtain them.
37
What is 'relative deprivation' in Marxist theory?
The lack of resources to sustain a lifestyle considered normal in society.
38
How do Marxists view law enforcement?
They see it as selectively enforced to keep the working class in their place, serving the interests of the ruling class.
39
What is an example of selective law enforcement against the working class?
Out of 200 companies that broke safety laws, only 3 were prosecuted.
40
What is the prosecution rate for corporate homicide in the UK according to the notes?
Only one successful prosecution in eight years for corporate homicide.
41
What is a limitation of Merton's theory regarding criminal behaviour?
It may suggest that Merton's theory is incomplete as it cannot adequately explain all forms of criminal behaviour.
42
What do Marxists argue about the motivation for crime among the bourgeoisie?
The motivation for profit leads to greed, encouraging corporate crimes.
43
What is the relationship between capitalism and feelings of frustration?
Inequality leads to feelings of frustration, resulting in crimes like violence and vandalism.
44
What is the impact of capitalism on the working class according to Marxists?
Exploitation drives people into poverty, making crime a survival strategy.
45
What is a key characteristic of capitalist society as defined by Marxism?
An economic and political system controlled by private owners for profit rather than by the state.
46
What is a limitation of Marxist theory regarding crime?
Marxism focuses primarily on class and ignores the relationship between crime and other inequalities such as gender and ethnicity.
47
How does gender inequality relate to crime statistics in Marxist theory?
Marxism struggles to explain why males are overly represented in crime statistics compared to women.
48
What does the representation of ethnic minorities in prison populations suggest about crime?
It suggests that factors beyond class inequality, such as gender and ethnicity inequality, also affect crime rates.
49
What is a notable exception to high crime rates in capitalist societies according to Marxist theory?
Japan has a very low homicide rate compared to the USA.
50
What factors might contribute to variations in crime rates across countries?
Size of country, gun laws, laws, education levels, effectiveness of law enforcement, well-being, and welfare/benefits support.
51
What does Marxism over-predict regarding crime?
Marxism over-predicts the amount of working-class crime.
52
Why is white-collar crime considered significant compared to organized or personal crime?
White-collar crime can pose health risks, compromise workplace safety, cause injury or fatalities, harm wildlife or the environment, and lead to organizational failures and job losses.
53
What type of crime does Marxism struggle to explain?
Marxism cannot explain non-utilitarian crime, which is not motivated by monetary gain.
54
What is the main argument of labeling theory in sociology?
Labelling theory suggests that most people commit deviant acts, but only some are caught and stigmatized for it.
55
What does Becker argue about the nature of crime?
Becker believes crime is a subjective concept and a social construct, as only certain acts are labeled as deviant or criminal.
56
Who are considered agents of social control in the context of labeling theory?
Agents of social control include police and judges, who enforce labels and can exercise selective law enforcement.
57
What is a consequence of being labeled as a criminal according to labeling theory?
The labeled individual may being to see themselves as 'bad', leading to a master status that overshadows other qualities.
58
What are the two types of deviance identified by Lemert?
Primary deviance (not socially labeled) and secondary deviance (labeled as deviant).
59
What is primary deviance?
Deviant behaviour that has not been socially labeled as deviant, such as dropping a crisp packet on the floor.
60
What is secondary deviance?
Deviant behaviour that has been labeled as deviant, such as being fined for dropping a crisp packet.
61
How does labeling lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy?
Once labeled as deviant, individuals internalize the label and may continue the deviant behaviour.
62
What role does the media play in labeling theory?
The media can demonize individuals who commit deviant acts, creating folk devils who feel marginalized and may continue their behaviour.
63
What is deviancy amplification?
Deviancy amplification occurs when the situation worsens due to the marginalization and alienation of labelled individuals.
64
What effect does labeling have on societal perceptions of deviance?
Labeling can lead to stereotyping and reinforce negative perceptions of those labeled as deviant.
65
What are the stages of becoming a deviant according to Becker?
1) Participates in deviant behaviour.
2) Gets caught doing the deviant behaviour.
3) Receives a deviant label.
4) The label is enforced.
5) Agents of social control make the label stick.
6) Begins to see themselves as deviant.
7) Achieves master status, potentially becoming a career criminal.
8) Leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
66
What is the different between primary and secondary deviance according to Lemert?
Primary deviance refers to initial acts of deviant behaviour, while secondary deviance occurs when an individual is caught and labeled for their deviant behaviour.
67
What role do folk devils play in Lemert's theory?
Folk devils are individuals or groups that the media demonizes, often based on shared characteristics, leading to societal stigma.
68
What is deviance amplification?
Deviance amplification occurs when attempts to control deviance, such as increased policing, lead to greater marginalization and alienation of the group, worsening the situation.
69
How does labeling theory explain the over-representation of working-class and minority groups in crime statistics?
It suggests that societal perceptions and biases lead to increased policing and expectations of criminality in these groups, which can perpetuate criminal behaviour.
70
What is a limitation of labeling theory regarding the inevitability of deviance?
The theory implies that once someone is labeled as deviant, further deviance is inevitable, but it does not explain why some individuals do not accept these labels.
71
What does labeling theory fail to explain about deviant behaviour?
It does not address the root causes of deviant behaviour, focusing instead on societal reactions to it.
72
What are some strengths of labeling theory?
It highlights discriminatory enforcement of laws, the consequences of labeling, and the role of the media in defining deviance.
73
What are some limitations of labelling theory?
it fails to explain why deviance occurs initially, ignores victims of crime, and does not account for individuals who do not internalize labels.
74
What is the political outlook of left realists?
Left realists have a left-wing socialist political outlook.
75
What do left realists identify as the root cause of crime?
They argue that inequality is the root cause of crime.
76
Who do left realists consider the main victims of crime?
Disadvantaged groups, particularly ethnic minorities and women.
77
What do left realists propose to reduce crime?
They propose making society fairer and more equal.
78
What is relative deprivation according to left realists?
Relative deprivation is the feeling of being worse off in comparison to others, which can lead to crime.
79
What is a criticism of labeling theory regarding the romanticising of crime?
It has the potential to romanticise crime by focusing on the 'criminal' rather than the victim.
80
How does labelling theory view the role of the media?
It highlights the media's role in defining and creating deviance and producing moral panic.
81
What is the impact of labelling on individuals according to Lemert?
It can lead to individuals adopting the deviant label as their master status, influencing their identity and behaviour.
82
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in the context of labelling theory?
It is when individuals act in accordance with the label placed upon them, reinforcing their deviant identity.
83
What might labelling not always lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy?
Not all individuals accept the labels given to them, which can prevent the predicted outcomes from occurring.
84
What does labelling theory highlight about official statistics?
It reveals weaknesses in official statistics, showing how biases can affect law enforcement.
85
What is the focus of left realism in crime prevention?
Left realism focuses on addressing social inequalities to prevent crime.
86
What do left realists argue is the root cause of crime?
Social inequality, focusing on marginalisation, relative deprivation, and subcultural formation.
87
What is the relationship between marginalisation and relative deprivation according too left realism?
Marginalisation and relative deprivation combine to lead to subcultural formation.
88
What are some factors contributing to social inequality as mentioned in the notes?
Cuts in benefits, unemployment, job insecurity, and low pay.
89
What is one consequence of perceived unfairness in society?
Some individuals may resort to crime to obtain what they feel should be rightfully theirs.
90
What groups are particularly vulnerable to marginalisation?
Working class and minority groups.
91
What feelings do marginalised groups experience that may lead to crime?
Powerlessness, frustration, and resentment of injustice.
92
What type of justice do left realists advocate for addressing crime>
Restorative justice.
93
What is a strength of left realism in understanding crime?
It provides valuable insight into predictors and solutions to criminal behaviour.
94
How does left realism suggest crime can be reduced?
By providing funding to impoverished areas and focusing on rehabilitation.
95
What is a limitation of left realism regarding the causes of crime?
It only accounts for structural causes and neglects biological and psychological factors.
96
What biological factor is mentioned as being linked to increased violence?
Increased levels of testosterone.
97
What psychological aspect may contribute to criminal behaviour according to the notes?
The development of a criminal personality.
98
What does left realism fail to explain about crime?
It does not adequately explain why individuals treated favorably in society commit crime.
99
What types of crime does left realism overlook?
White-collar crime and corporate crime.
100
What is the outcome of individuals adopting a subculture according to left realism?
They may reject the norms and values of society and find status elsewhere.
101
How do peer groups influence individuals in a subculture?
Status is rewarded by peers within the subculture, leading to rejection of legitimate means.
102
What societal conditions lead to individuals feeling financially disadvantaged?
Low paid work, lack of access to credit, and high costs for good and services.
103
What is the impact of crime on victims from deprived and vulnerable groups?
Left realism highlights the reality of crime and its effects on these victims.
104
What does left realism suggest about the effectiveness of rehabilitation compared to punishment?
Rehabilitation has been shown to be more effective than harsh punishments in some cases.
105
What does the theory of left realism imply about the relationship between crime and social structure?
It suggests that those treated unequally in society are more likely to commit crime.
106
What is the overall critique of left realism regarding its explanation of criminal behaviour?
It may not provide a complete explanation of criminal behaviour due to its focus on structural causes.
107
What is a strength of left realism in criminology?
It explores the role of the victim of crime, especially the poor or vulnerable, in much more depth than other criminological theories.
108
What is a limitation of left realism?
It does not explain why everyone in relative deprivation fails to turn to crime.
109
What is a key belief of right realism regarding the cause of crime?
Right realists argue that crime is the product of inadequate socialisation, rejecting the Marxist view that poverty causes crime.
110
How do right realists view the role of the nuclear family?
They see the nuclear family as the best source of socialisation.
111
What do right realists believe about welfare benefits?
They argue that generous welfare benefits lead to welfare-dependent single parents, resulting in an underclass that fails to socialise their children.
112
What is the rational choice theory in right realism?
It posits that deciding to commit crime is a choice based on perceived costs and benefits.
113
What is the 'broken windows theory' in right realism?
It suggests that high crime rates encourage more crime and that signs of disorder will lead to more disorder.
114
What is the purpose of zero tolerance policy according to right realism?
To tackle low-key disorder quickly to prevent escalation into more serious crime.
115
What evidence supports the rational choice theory in right realism?
Interviews with convicted burglars indicated that the risk of being caught was the most important factor influencing their decision to commit crime.
116
What is a limitation of right realism regarding the causes of crime?
It does not account for structural causes of crime, such as poverty and the increasing gap between the rich and the poor.
117
How does right realism view crime in relation individual choice?
It asserts that crime is a choice made by unsocialised individuals.
118
What political outlook does right realism represent?
A right-wing, conservative political outlook.
119
What political outlook does left realism represent?
A left-wing political outlook.
120
What is the main focus of left realism in understanding crime?
It emphasises inequality as the root cause of crime.
121
What is one strength of right realism regarding family structure and crime?
There is evidence suggesting that people from non-traditional family structures are more likely to be criminals.
122
What is a criticism of right realism's focus on family structure?
It only accounts for individual explanations of crime and neglects broader structural issues.
123
How do right realists propose to deal with crime?
Through harsher punishments and control rather than rehabilitation.
124
What is the relationship between crime and socialisation according to right realism?
Right realism posits that inadequate socialisation leads to criminal behaviour.
125
What does left realism argue about relative deprivation?
It suggests that relative deprivation can lead to crime when individuals feel marginalised.
126
What is the main cause of crime according to right realism?
Unsocialised individuals.
127
What is the main cause of crime according to left realism?
Inequality.
128
Do right realists believe that crime is a choice?
Yes, they believe that individuals choose to commit crime.
129
Do left realists believe that crime is a choice?
No, they argue that crime is influenced by social factors such as inequality and marginalisation.
130
What is one argument made by right realists about the impact of absent fathers?
They argue that absent fathers lead to boys lacking discipline and appropriate male role models, which can result in delinquency.
