ACC

Question 1

The anterior cingulate cortex is…(2)

Answer 1

• Region situated at front of CC

- Comprised of Brodmann’s Areas 24, 33 and 34

Question 2

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Opening line

Answer 2

Data from EEG studies have implicated the ACC in the detection of errors an important first step associated with behavioural monitoring

Question 3

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3 studies

Answer 3

Gehring et al., 1993
Coles et al., 1999
Scheffers & Coles, 2000

Question 4

Gehring et al., 1993

Answer 4

An event-related potential known as the ERN has been consistently recognised at electrode sides located in the vicinity of the ACC, when an error is made in experimental paradigms

Question 5

Coles et al., 1999

Scheffers & Coles, 2000

Answer 5

• ERN occurs slightly before an error

- ERN amplitude associated with judgements of response accuracy

Question 6

Coles et al., 1999
Scheffers & Coles, 2000

Suggesting the presence of….

Answer 6

A constant monitoring system that is hyper-responsive to incorrect responses and inconsistencies in expected/intended versus actual outcome

Question 7

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Studies

Answer 7

Marsh et al., 2007

Miltner et al., 2003

Question 8

Marsh et al., 2007

Answer 8

Increased fMRI activation of dorsal/rostral areas of ACC following participant losses associated with their errors

Question 9

Miltner et al., (2003)

Method

Answer 9

Source analysis
MEG/EEG methods
Pps compleyed go-no-go paradigm

Question 10

Miltner et al., 2003

Finding

Answer 10

Involvement of ACC and increased activity from it relating to task errors

Question 11

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Studies

Answer 11

Holroyd & Coles (2002)

Frank et al., (2005)

Question 12

What is the reinforcement learning theory?

Answer 12

• ACC liases with MDS in detection of error
• Dip in dopamine from MDS
• Generates an ERN, which is a negative learning signal used to train the ACC

Question 13

Holroyd & Coles (2002)

Evidence for the reinforcement learning theory

Answer 13

Reported computational/empirical evidence that was consistent with the model

Question 14

Frank et a., (2005)

Method

Answer 14

• Reinforcement behaviour paradigm
• Initially trained using stimuli that produced probablistic ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’ feedback
• Then novel stimuli combinations were shown which allowed researchers to determine whether the pps favoured avoiding errors or being correct

Question 15

Frank et al., 2005

Findings

Answer 15

Larger ERN’s were associated with greater bias towards avoiding negative events

Question 16

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Finishing sentence

Answer 16

Thus, this evidence suggests that the ACC is associated with behavioural optimisation by producing a bias towards error-avoidant behaviours

Question 17

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Studies

Answer 17

Porter et al., 2019

Question 18

Porter et al., 2019

Method

Answer 18

• Choice-behaviour paradigm (rats)

- Choice made between low-effrot route, or high-effort route which had same reward

Question 19

Porter et al., 2019

Findings

Answer 19

• Single electrode data displayed selective ACC firing towards easier route

Question 20

Porter et al., 2019

The findings suggest….

Answer 20

ACC was responsible for the evaluation of available options, and ultimately decision-making as to the most advantageous route

Question 21

Porter et al., (2019)

Interesting, the authors reported that…

Answer 21

ACC monitoring was present even without a choice, suggestive of a constant/heavy involvement

Question 22

Conclusion

First line

Answer 22

It is clear that the ACC may okay an integral role to functions associated with behaviour monitoring and optimisation

Question 23

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Studies (4)

Answer 23

Botnivick et al., 2001
Yeung et al., 2004
Gehring & Willhouby, 2002
Botnivick et al., 2004

Question 24

Botvinick et al., (2001) proposed the

Answer 24

Conflict Monitoring Model

Question 25

What does the conflict monitoring model propose?

Answer 25

ERN (by ACC) activity is proportional to, and simply reflective of response conflict between correct response and executed response

Question 26

Yeung et al., (2004)

Answer 26

• Supports the CMM

- ERN data from EEG consistent with response conflict and conflict monitoring

Question 27

Conflict Monitoring Model…

However, the model is…

Answer 27

Limited in its faculty to fully explain the role of ERN’s, as they are unable to account for FRNs

Question 28

Gehring & Willoughby, 2002

Findings

Answer 28

Neg. deflection observed 200-300 ms after receiving feedback, i.e. not time locked to the time of the error

Question 29

Botnivick et al., (2004) suggested that…

Answer 29

Adopting an integrative approach of multiple models may present itself as more fruitful