Adaptations Flashcards
1
Q
what is an abiotic factor?
A
Abiotic factors are properties of the environment that are non-living
2
Q
examples of abiotic factors?
A
temperature, water, nutrient availability and acidity
3
Q
what is a biotic factor?
A
Biotic factors are properties of the environment that are living
4
Q
examples of biotic factors?
A
predator-prey interactions, plant-herbivore interactions, competition for resources and symbiotic relationships
5
Q
what factors are environments made up and categorised by?
A
their abiotic and biotic factors
6
Q
what is a tolerance range?
A
The zone in which an organism can survive
7
Q
why do organisms evolve adaptations?
A
to deal with the abiotic and biotic factors in their environment
8
Q
what do organisms have for each factor?
A
each organism will have a range of conditions within which it will thrive, survive or not-stay-alive (stages of tolerance range) and a specific tolerance range for environmental factors
9
Q
what are the stages of the tolerance range?
A
optimum range - thrive (middle)
zone of physiological stress - survive (inbetween)
zone of intolerance - not-stay-alive (very high or low), out of range
10
Q
what are deserts as environments?
A
Deserts are extremely complex ecosystems and generally are either hot or cold.
11
Q
what are hot desert environments typically characterised by?
A
high temperatures and low water availability
12
Q
what have plants and animals had to do to survive in deserts?
A
evolve adaptations
13
Q
what is an adaptation?
A
a genetically controlled structural, behavioural or physiological feature that enhances the survival of an organism in particular environmental conditions
14
Q
what are structural adaptations?
A
Structural adaptations are evolved modifications to an organism’s physical structure.
15
Q
examples of structural adaptations?
A
- Teeth
- Body coverings (shells, scales, quills)
- Insulation
16
Q
what are physiological adaptations?
A
Physiological adaptations are evolved modifications to an organism’s internal functioning or metabolic processes.
17
Q
examples of physiological adaptations?
A
- Thermoregulation
- Making venom
- Secreting slime
18
Q
what are behavioural adaptations?
A
Behavioural adaptations are evolved modifications to an organism’s actions. They can be learned or instinctive.
19
Q
examples of behavioural adaptations?
A
- Social behaviour
- Behaviour for protection
20
Q
what does an organisms survival depend on in the desert?
A
thermoregulation and maintaining water balance
21
Q
what is thermoregulation?
A
process of maintaining a constant internal body temperature
22
Q
how do organisms exchange heat with the environment?
A
through radiation, conduction & convection
23
Q
do organisms produce their own heat?
A
produce their own metabolic heat and release heat via evaporation
24
Q
how do organisms obtain water?
A
Organisms obtain water by drinking, eating food and metabolic water production
25
how do organisms lose water?
Lose water through excretion and evaporative water loss (sweating)
26
In hot deserts, what have organisms generally adapted to do?
- maximise heat loss
- minimise heat gain
- maximise water uptake
- minimise water loss
27
what structural solutions have many animals have evolved in hot deserts?
maintaining heat (temperature) balance that prevent the animal from overheating
28
what happens if an animal overheats?
If the animal does overheat, many biochemical processes within the body cannot continue and the animal may die.
29
Structural adaptations in hot deserts include?
- Insulation
- Surface area to volume ratio (SA:V)
30
what insulation is preferred in hot deserts?
A thin insulating layer is preferable for desert animals.
31
what does a high SA:V ratio do in hot deserts?
releases or absorbs a large amount of heat in little time allowing their body temperature to quickly change
32
what animals is a high SA:V ratio beneficial for in hot deserts?
This is beneficial for animals that are able to avoid direct sunlight.
33
what does a low SA:V ratio do in hot deserts?
releases or absorbs a low amount of heat and their internal body temperature is resistant to change
34
what animals is a low SA:V ratio beneficial for in hot deserts?
This is beneficial for animals if they are exposed to direct sunlight or cannot avoid heat.
35
Physiological adaptations in hot deserts include?
- Metabolic heat
- Surface blood flow
- Increasing water input
- Decreasing water output
- Evaporative cooling
36
what is metabolic heat?
Refers to heat generated through biological processes occurring in the body
37
what are the two strategies for generating heat?
an animal can either be an endotherm or an ectotherm
38
what are ectotherms?
An ectotherm relies primarily on its external environment to regulate the temperature of its body.
39
what are endotherms?
Endotherms are able to regulate their body temperatures by producing heat within the body.
40
what type of generating heat strategy is found in hot environments?
ectotherms
41
what happens when in hot deserts to surface blood flow?
When internal temperature rises after activity, blood vessels near the skin dilate and total surface blood flow increases.
This hot blood releases heat into the environment cooling the animal down.
42
what is vasoconstriction?
the narrowing (constriction) of blood vessels to conserve heat (surface blood flow decreases)
43
what is vasodilation?
dilation of blood vessels to release heat (surface blood flow increases)
44
how do animals increase water input in hot deserts?
Due to low availability of surface water, most desert animals are adapted to survive entirely on the water they consume from food and the water produced during aerobic cellular respiration.
45
how do animals decrease water output in hot deserts?
Most desert animals are able to excrete concentrated urine which contains very little water:
- Have highly complex digestive systems to maximise water absorption from food.
- By excreting highly concentrated wastes, animals conserve water.
46
what is evaporative cooling?
Animals release huge amounts of heat via the evaporation of water
47
examples of evaporative cooling?
Sweating and panting
48
problem with evaporative cooling in the hot desert?
While evaporation is an effective heat loss mechanism, it requires water and may cause dehydration in arid environments.
49
Behavioural adaptations for hot deserts include?
- evading
- enduring
*both are to avoid overheating
50
what are evaders?
Evaders are generally smaller animals that seek out shade or retreat to a burrow system to avoid hot periods of the day
51
what are endurers?
Endurers are generally larger animals that tend towards inactivity during the hottest periods of the day with many digging small pits to sit in, releasing heat into the cooler soil via conduction.
52
what will larger endures do?
Larger endurers will often seek out shade underneath larger trees.
53
what type of adaptations do plants have in hot deserts?
structural and physiological adaptations which allow the to live in the harsh conditions present in the desert
54
what must plants do in order to survive in hot and dry environments?
- Decrease their heat intake
- Maximise their water uptake
- Minimise their water loss
55
what are plants three common strategies to limit heat absorption?
- Having lightly coloured or reflective leaves (or photosynthetic organs)
- Producing leaves of smaller surface area
- Orienting their leaves vertically to minimise the surface area exposed to the sun.
56
how do plants get majority of their water?
by absorbing water through their roots
57
how do plants adapt to the little rain in the desert?
- many long-living desert plants have extensive deep root systems capable of reaching groundwater reserves
- Other plants spread roots horizontally to absorb the maximum amount of surface water during brief periods of rain and store this water for later use
58
how do plants reduce water loss to the environment?
- by reducing the rate of water lost through the stomata during the day
- Plants can minimise this by reducing their stomatal density
- Guard cells surrounding the stomata can also close the stomata to reduce water loss.
- Rolled and folded leaves can also minimize water loss
59
Challenges of cold environments?
- Low temperatures
- Piercing winds
- Low availability of nutrients
- Precipitation as snow (and surface water freezing)
60
how are low temperatures a challenge in cold environments?
at low temperatures the reactions required for life slow down or stop
61
how are piercing winds a challenge in cold environments?
exert strong forces on plants and can dramatically increase heat lost by an organism
62
how are low availability of nutrients a challenge in cold environments?
a lack of nutrients restricts macromolecule synthesis & overall growth rate
63
how are precipitation as snow (and surface water freezing) a challenge in cold environments?
make it difficult for organisms to obtain the liquid water required for survival
64
Structural adaptations for cold environments?
- insulation
- Surface area to volume ratio (SA:V)
65
how does insulation help animals in cold environments?
In cold environments, animals often have a thick insulating layer covering their entire body to minimise heat loss.
66
what is insulation of animals in cold environments usually composed of?
This insulation is usually composed of thick fur, plumage or subdermal fat
67
In cold environments what do animals do with Surface area to volume ratio (SA:V)?
reduce their SA:V ratio
68
how does reducing SA:V) help animals in cold environments?
an animal will release heat slowly, increasing the time it takes for body temperature to drop
69
what shape should animals be in cold environments for optimum survival?
In cold environments, the more spherical the organism, the easier it is to maintain a constant body temperature in a cold environment.
70
Physiological adaptations for cold environments?
- endotherms
- torpor
- Vasoconstriction
- Countercurrent circulation
- Antifreeze proteins
71
what type of generating heat strategy is found in cold environments?
endotherms
72
why is being an endotherm for beneficial in cold environments?
Animals cannot obtain heat from an environment with a lower temperature than their body, so maintaining a stable body temperature via internal metabolic processes is advantageous.
73
what is torpor?
A physiological state in which the metabolism of an animal is reduced to conserve energy.
74
what are the types of torpor?
- hibernation (in endotherms)
- brumation (in ectotherms)
75
why is torpor beneficial in cold environments?
This is beneficial as the reduction in metabolic rate allows the animal to survive on very little food or water and remaining inactive in shelter allows animals to avoid harsh weather.
76
when does vasoconstriction occur?
Occurs when the diameter of small blood vessels in the skin and overall blood flow is reduced.
77
why is vasoconstriction beneficial in cold environments?
When many animals need to conserve heat, blood vessels constrict and heat loss is minimised.
78
what is countercurrent circulation?
Uses the heat travelling from the heart to heat cool blood returning from the animal’s periphery, meaning that the core body temperature is not lowered.
Additionally, this cools the blood heading towards the periphery, so the temperature difference between the periphery and the environment is reduced and less heat is released to the environment.
79
why is countercurrent circulation beneficial in cold environements?
makes it much easier to maintain a stable core body temperature
80
what do antifreeze proteins do?
prevent the formation of large ice crystals in the body, enabling water to remain liquid at lower temperatures
81
Behavioural adaptations for cold environments?
- Reducing exposed surface area
- Huddling
- Seeking shelter
- Migrating to a warmer climate
82
how does reducing exposed surface area help in cold environments?
Objects with lower surface area to volume ratios release less heat.
83
how do animals reduce exposed surface area?
Many animals will reduce their surface area to volume ratio by hiding or protecting their peripherals as temperatures drop.
84
how does huddling help in cold environments?
Huddling allows animals to artificially decrease their individual surface area to volume ratio, decreasing the amount of heat released into the environment.
85
how does seeking shelter help in cold environments?
By seeking shelter, animals can surround themselves in a stable microclimate with little or no wind and more forgiving temperatures.
86
examples of shelter in cold environments?
Animal shelters typically include underground burrows, dens or rocky outcrops.
87
how does migrating to warmer climates help in cold environments?
- During cold winter months, many animals will migrate from one area to another location that has a more moderate climate and more readily available resources.
- Warmer climates are also easier for breeding and raising newborns.
88
Plant adaptations in cold environemnts?
- Modifications to the chemical composition of the cell membrane
- Increasing solute concentration
- Antifreeze proteins
89
how does modifications to the chemical composition of the cell membrane help in cold environments?
increases functioning in low temperatures
90
how does increasing solute concentration help in cold environments?
lowers the freezing point and increases a plant cell’s resistance to freezing
91
how does antifreeze proteins help in cold environments?
disrupt the formation of ice crystals within the cell, enabling water to remain liquid at lower temperatures
92
what is a dormant seed?
A dormant seed is unable to germinate during a specific time under certain environmental conditions.
93
how does seed dormancy help in colder environments?
Seed dormancy is a trait of many cold-adapted plants, where seeds are dispersed before winter months and remain dormant until warmer spring weather, making new plants more likely to survive
94
what is a deciduous tree?
A deciduous tree is a tree that seasonally drops all of its leaves at once to avoid harsh conditions.
95
Cold-adapted deciduous trees several advantages?
- Avoid frozen leaf tissue during winter
- Require less energy and water to survive during winter months
- Experience less branch breakage during periods of heavy snowfall and strong winds
96
what are the three essential parts of an ecosystem?
- A living community
- The non-living surroundings
- Interactions within the living community and between the community and the non-living surroundings.
97
Five levels of ecological organisation?
- Cell
- Organism
- Population
- Community
- Ecosystem
98
what is a cell?
individual cells of a larger organism
99
what is an organism?
an individual living thing, such as an animal, plant or single-celled form of life
100
what is a population?
a group of organisms of the same species living in the same geographical region
101
what is a community?
interacting populations of different species in the same geographical region
102
what is an ecosystem?
multiple communities interacting with one another and their physical environment
103
what are ecosystems made up of?
Ecosystems are made up of both biotic and abiotic factors and contain many individual and population interactions, as well as the flow of energy/nutrients between organisms.
104
what is population size?
The population size of a species is the total number of members within any given population.
105
can a population size change?
Over time, population size may change, however, there are limits as to how many individuals an environment can support and sustain.
Population size can increase and decrease over time.
106
what is a carrying capacity of an environment?
the limit as to how many individuals an environment can support and sustain
107
can you exceed the carrying capacity?
It is possible to exceed this value, but individuals will then suffer as they cannot all be sustained by the environment.
108
Factors that alter a population’s size include?
- Births
- Deaths
- Immigration (migration of individuals into a population)
- Emigration (migration of individuals out of a population)
109
what is the population growth model?
Ni+1 = Ni + births − deaths + immigration − emigration
where:
Ni+1 = future population size
Ni = initial population size
110
what influences population size?
Many biotic and abiotic factors of an ecosystem can influence the births, deaths, immigration and emigration seen in a population and therefore the overall population size.
111
what is population distribution?
Population distribution of a species refers to the range of geographical areas that members of a population can be found in.
112
what is population distribution limited by?
It is limited by the ideal habitat of a species and its ability to tolerate different environments.
113
what can population distribution be and influenced by?
The population distribution of a species is influenced by a whole range of factors and can be uniform, random or clumped.
114
what is population density?
The population density of a species refers to the number of individuals found in a given area, such as individuals per square kilometer.
115
what does population density influence?
Population density influences the rate at which population size increases.
116
what do dense populations do?
Dense populations would use up the available resources in an ecosystem more quickly than less dense populations.
117
what do low density populations do?
At low population densities, the population growth of a species over time can be exponential.
118
what happens as population density increases?
As the density increases, the population growth rate will begin to slow until the population size remains constant.
119
Factors impacting population size?
- Density-independent factors
- Density-dependent factors
120
what are density-independent factors?
Environmental factors that affect population growth but are not affected by population density.
121
what are examples of density-independent factors?
- climate
- natural disturbance events (cyclone, volcanic eruptions)
- functionally unlimited resources (O2, CO2)
122
what are density-dependent factors?
Environmental factors that affect population growth and become stronger as population density increases.
123
what are examples of density-dependent factors?
- disease
- predation
- competition
- resource availability
- accumulation of waste
124
observations of graphs for population growth?
exponential = unrestrained population growth
s-shaped = density dependant and independant factors
125
what are the different types of symbiotic interactions between organisms?
- Mutualism
- Commensalism
- Amensalism
- Parasitism
- Predation
- Competition
126
what is mutualism?
Mutualism describes interactions between two organisms of different species where both parties experience some overall benefit. (bee and flower)
127
what is commensalism?
Commensalism describes interactions between two organisms of different species where one organism gains some benefit while the other experiences no significant benefit or harm. (clownfish and anemones)
128
what is predation?
Predation describes interactions between different species where one organism (the predator) hunts and kills another (the prey) for food.
129
who receives the benefit and what in predation?
The predator receives the benefit of obtaining food, while the prey is killed and eaten.
130
how do prey avoid predation?
Many prey species have evolved adaptations to evade their predators (e.g. camouflage)
131
how do predators help predation?
Predators have also evolved adaptations to hunt their prey more effectively (e.g. ‘weapons’ like claws and teeth)
132
what is parasitism?
Parasitism describes interactions between two or more organisms of different species where one organism (the parasite) obtains nutrients at the expense of another organism (the host).
133
what do parasites recieve in parasitism?
Parasites usually obtain nutrients without immediately causing the host’s death, though they may weaken the host enough to cause death.
134
what are ectoparasites and examples?
Mosquitoes and ticks are ectoparasites, as they live external to the host.
135
what are endoparasites and examples?
Parasitic worms, fungi and amoeba can be endoparasites that live inside a host.
136
what is amensalism?
Amensalism describes interactions between two or more organisms of different species where one organism experiences some negative effect while the other experiences neither a beneficial nor negative effect. (cattle and grass)
137
what is competition?
Competition describes interactions between two or more organisms competing for the same pool of resources. Two competing organisms must invest more in obtaining the limited resource, which has a negative effect on each organism. (weed and vegetables)
138
what happens when two organisms compete for the same limited resource?
the availability of the resource in the environment decreases
139
how can competition exist?
Competition can exist between organisms of different species, as well as, organisms of the same species.
140
what is interspecific competition?
describes competition for resources between members of different species
141
what is intraspecific competition?
describes competition for resources between members of the same species
142
what is a keystone species?
Keystone species play a much larger role in maintaining ecosystem structure and composition than other species.
143
what happens when you remove keystone species?
Removing a keystone species typically has a larger effect than the removal of other species.
144
why are keystone species hard to identify?
Keystone species are generally hard to identify, as the removal of any species has an effect on the ecosystem, however they tend to adopt the same sorts of roles within an ecosystem.
145
what are the common roles that keystone species fulfil?
Two common roles that keystone species fulfill are apex predators and ecosystem engineers.
146
what is an apex predator?
An apex predator is a predator that has no natural predators and is at the top of its food chain.
147
what are apex predators responsible for?
Apex predators are responsible for controlling the numbers of their prey and subsequently the number of many other organisms within an ecosystem.
148
what do ecosystem engineers do?
Ecosystem engineers interact with and significantly alter the physical environment of their ecosystem.
149
what is an ecosystem engineer?
An ecosystem engineer is an organism that modifies, creates or destroys habitat and directly or indirectly modulates the availability of resources to other organisms, causing physical state changes in biotic or abiotic materials.
150
what do Indigenous Australian Ways of Knowing focus on?
Indigenous Australian Ways of Knowing focus on interconnections and relationships within systems and between nature and people, in an attempt to generate a holistic understanding of the world.
151
what have Indigenous Australians’ knowledge of the Australian ecosystem has enabled them to do?
Indigenous Australians’ knowledge of the Australian ecosystem has enabled them to survive in the harsh Australian landscape for over 60,000 years.
152
what do Australian Aboriginal people and Indigenous communities around the world have?
Australian Aboriginal people and Indigenous communities around the world have a deep and detailed understanding of their native ecosystems and environment.
153
what do Indigenous Australian Ways of Knowing relate to?
Natural cycles, season and climate
Adaptations of, and interdependencies between, different species
154
what have Indigenous Australian Ways of Knowing been used by Indigenous people for?
This knowledge has been used by Indigenous people to inform their practices, gathering of food and use of resources.
155
what is country?
Country is an area that is traditionally owned and looked after by an Aboriginal language group or community, or by certain people within that group.
156
what are features of country?
- Is a physical place and all the organisms that live there (past, present & future).
- Encompases the spiritual meaning and feelings of deep connection and attachment associated with that area for a community or individual.
157
is country living?
For indigenous people, Country is a living thing & the language used when describing Country reflects this.
158
who are the Wurundjeri people?
The Wurundjeri people are an Australian Aboriginal people of the Woiwurrung language group, in the Kulin nation.
They are the traditional owners of the Yarra River Valley, covering much of the present location of Melbourne.
159
Indigenous understanding of adaptations?
Indigenous Australians have a longstanding and rich cultural knowledge of the role that environmental adaptations play in the survival of a species.
160
how can Indigenous understanding of adaptations be seen?
Can be seen in Indigenous history by examining the Indigenous practice of cultural fire management.
161
what was happening to the environment when Indigenous Australian people first arrived in Australia?
When Indigenous Australian people first arrived in Australia over 60,000 years ago, the continent was already drying (decreasing rainfall and increasing temperatures).
In this more fire-prone environment, pyrophilic plant species came to dominate and adapted to tolerate fire and heat by producing epicormic shoots and developing seeds that survive the intense heat generated by bushfires.
162
how did Indigenous Australians adapt to the arid environment?
In order to live in this arid environment, Aboriginal Australians had to understand these adaptations and learn how to use fire to control and stimulate plant growth to their advantage.
163
how did Indigenous Australians use fires?
- Clear shrubs from grasslands and woodlands
- Promote various species of plants
- Break up Country and reduce the intensity and extent of wildfires
164
what is cultural fire management?
Aboriginal managers would walk Country and were able to see where fire was needed, using it appropriately to address any issues they discovered.
165
The type of findings that might have triggered a decision to burn include the presence of:
- Long, dry grass
- A large amount of leaf litter on the ground
- Dead standing shrubs
- Fire hazards around camps and paths
166
what were Indigenous Australians fires like?
- Fires created under Aboriginal management were smaller, more frequent and less damaging than wild bushfires (often referred to as ‘cool burns’).
- These fires resulted in bushfires being less intense, which preserved important and limited ecosystem components (e.g. habitat trees and hollows).
167
what do Indigenous fire management promote and result in?
- Indigenous fire management promotes local biodiversity
- Also results in a fire mosaic (pattern created by Indigenous Australian cultural fire management where some areas of land are burned while others are left to regenerate).
168
what environment did fire mosaic create?
This fire mosaic created an environment that was safe from out of control, heat-producing bushfires, allowing the growth of various plants and animal foods.
169
what is interdependencies (indigenous)?
Interdependencies between species within an ecosystem are well understood by Indigenous Australians.
An example is the mutualistic relationship between quandong trees & emus.
170
mutualistic relationship between quandong trees & emus?
- Germination of the quandong’s seed is difficult, as it is surrounded by a very hard and durable seed coat.
- Emus eat the fruit of the quandong tree.
- As the food travels through their digestive tract, the seed coating softens allowing it to germinate more easily.
- Emus then excrete this softened seed in their faeces.
- Emus both disperse the seed widely and assist in germination and the plant’s early life, as the emu droppings provide a source of fertiliser for the young plant.
171
Indigenous uses of the quandong fruit and seeds
food - fruit flesh and kernels
medicine - leaves and oil from the seeds
fire - seed oil
increase distribution - seeds
172
Acknowledgement of Indigenous knowledge?
- Quandongs are now starting to develop significant economic potential as food products.
- Aboriginal people played an important role in establishing this industry.
- It was their knowledge that allowed Western science and culture to discover the plants in the first place.
- Early European explorers of Australia who were accompanied by Aboriginal guides were often give quandong fruit to save them from scurvy.
- Given this, it is important to acknowledge the intellectual property rights of Indigenous Australians when discussing the economic potential of quandongs.
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