AFH Manuevers

Question 1

Straight Flight & Level Flight

Answer 1

Objective: The other fundamentals are derived as variations from straight-and-level flight, and the need to form proper and effective skills in flying straight and level should be understood
Goal: Maintaining a constant direction or heading is accomplished by visually checking the relationship of the airplane’s wingtips to the natural horizon.
An a The pitch attitude for level flight is first obtained by the pilot being properly seated, selecting a point toward the airplane’s nose as a reference, and then keeping that reference point in a fixed position relative to the natural horizon.
-quick scan of the attitude indicator and the heading indicator
-Continually observing both wingtips has advantages other than being the only positive check for leveling the wings. This includes looking for aircraft traffic, terrain and weather influences, and maintaining overall situational awareness.
Common Errors

1. Attempting to use improper pitch and bank refeequent flights.
2. Forgetting the location of preselected reference points on subsequent flights.
3. Attempting to establish or correct airplane attitude using flight instruments rather than the natural horizon.
4. “Chasing” the flight instruments rather than adhering to the principles of attitude flying.
5. Mechanically pushing or pulling on the flight controls rather than exerting accurate and smooth pressure.
6. Not scanning outside the aircraft for other traffic and weather and terrain influences.
7. A tight palm grip on the flight controls resulting in a desensitized feeling of the hand and fingers.
8. Overcontrolling the airplane.
9. Habitually flying with one wing low or maintaining directional control using only the rudder control.
10. Failure to make timely and measured control inputs after a deviation from straight-and-level.
11. Inadequate attention to sensory inputs in developing feel for trence points on the airplane to establish attitude

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Question 2

Level Turns

Answer 2

A turn is initiated by banking the wings in the desired direction of the turn through the pilot’s use of the aileron flight controls.

1. Bank the airplane, adding either enough power or pitching up to compensate for the loss of vertical lift. The pilot uses the rudder to offset any adverse yaw developed by wing’s differential lift and the
   engine/propeller.
2. Neutralize controls as necessary to stop bank from increasing and hold desired bank angle.
3. Use the opposite stick (aileron) to return airplane to level.
4. Neutralize the ailerons (along with either power or pitch reduction) for level flight. [Figure 3-10]

Common errors in level turns are:

1. Failure to adequately clear in the direction of turn for aircraft traffic. 2. Gaining or losing altitude during the turn.
2. Not holding the desired bank angle constant.
3. Attempting to execute the turn solely by instrument reference.
4. Leaning away from the direction of the turn while seated.
5. Insufficient feel for the airplane as evidenced by the inability to detect slips or skids without flight instruments. 7. Attempting to maintain a constant bank angle by referencing only the airplane’s nose.
6. Making skidding flat turns to avoid banking the airplane.
7. Holding excessive rudder in the direction of turn.
8. Gaining proficiency in turns in only one direction.
9. Failure to coordinate the controls.

Question 3

Climbs and Climbing Turns

Answer 3

Establishing a Climb
A straight climb is entered by gently increasing back pressure on the elevator

Climbing turns may be established by entering the climb first and then banking into the turn or climbing and turning simultaneously. During climbing turns, as in any turn, the loss of vertical lift should be compensated by an increase in pitch attitude.

Common errors in the performance of climbs and climbing turns are:

1. Attempting to establish climb pitch attitude by primarily referencing the airspeed indicator and chasing the airspeed. 2. Applying elevator pressure too aggressively resulting in an excessive climb angle.
2. Inadequate or inappropriate rudder pressure during climbing turns.
3. Allowing the airplane to yaw during climbs usually due to inadequate right rudder pressure.
4. Fixation on the airplane’s nose during straight climbs, resulting in climbing with one wing low.
5. Initiating a climbing turn without coordinated use of flight controls, resulting in no turn and a climb with one wing low. 7. Improper coordination resulting in a slip that counteracts the rate of climb, resulting in little or no altitude gain.
6. Inability to keep pitch and bank attitude constant during climbing turns.
7. Attempting to exceed the airplane’s climb capability.
8. Using excessive forward elevator pressure during level-off resulting in a loss of altitude or excessive low G-force.

Question 4

Descents and Descending Turns

Answer 4

To enter a glide, the pilot should close the throttle and, if equipped, advance the propeller lever forward. With back pressure on the elevator flight control, the pilot should maintain altitude until the airspeed decreases to the recommended best glide speed.

Common errors in the performance of descents and descending turns are:

1. Failure to adequately clear for aircraft traffic in the turn direction or descent.
2. Inadequate elevator back pressure during glide entry resulting in an overly steep glide.
3. Failure to slow the airplane to approximate glide speed prior to lowering pitch attitude.
4. Attempting to establish/maintain a normal glide solely by reference to flight instruments.
5. Inability to sense changes in airspeed through sound and feel.
6. Inability to stabilize the glide (chasing the airspeed indicator).
7. Attempting to “stretch” the glide by applying back-elevator pressure.
8. Skidding or slipping during gliding turns and not recognizing the difference in rudder forces with and without power. 9. Failure to lower pitch attitude during gliding turn entry resulting in a decrease in airspeed.
9. Excessive rudder pressure during recovery from gliding turns.
10. Inadequate pitch control during recovery from straight glide.
11. Cross-controlling during gliding turns near the ground.
12. Failure to maintain constant bank angle during gliding turns.

Question 5

Normal Takeoff

Answer 5

A normal takeoff is one in which the airplane is headed into the wind;

Takeoff Roll
After releasing the brakes, the pilot should advance the throttle smoothly and continuously to takeoff power. As the airplane starts to roll forward, assure both feet are on the rudder pedals so that the toes or balls of the feet are on the rudder portions, not on the brake. aileron controls into any crosswind to keep the airplane centered on the runway centerline.
The effects of engine torque and P-factor at the initial speeds tend to pull the nose to the left. The pilot should use whatever rudder pressure is needed to correct for these effects or winds.
Check the engine instruments for indications of a malfunction during the takeoff roll.

Lift-Off
For takeoff, looking far down the runway at two points aligned with the runway
the pilot should gradually apply back-elevator pressure to raise the nose-wheel slightly off the runway
the pitch attitude to hold the climb airspeed should be held with elevator control and trimmed to maintain that pitch
the takeoff path remain aligned with the runway

Common errors in the performance of normal takeoffs and departure climbs are:
⦁ Failure to review AFM/POH and performance charts prior to takeoff.
⦁ Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing into position on the active runway.
⦁ Abrupt use of the throttle.
⦁ Failure to check engine instruments for signs of malfunction after applying takeoff power.
⦁ Failure to anticipate the airplane’s left turning tendency on initial acceleration.
⦁ Overcorrecting for left turning tendency.
⦁ Relying solely on the airspeed indicator rather than developing an understanding of visual references and
tracking clues of airplane airspeed and controllability during acceleration and lift-off.
⦁ Failure to attain proper lift-off attitude.
⦁ Inadequate compensation for torque/P-factor during initial climb resulting in a sideslip.
⦁ Over-control of elevators during initial climb-out and lack of elevator trimming.
⦁ Limiting scan to areas directly ahead of the airplane (pitch attitude and direction), causing a wing
(usually the left) to drop immediately after lift-off.
⦁ Failure to attain/maintain best rate-of-climb airspeed (VY) or desired climb airspeed.
⦁ Failure to employ the principles of attitude flying during climb-out, resulting in “chasing” the airspeed
indicator.

Question 6

Crosswind Takeoff

Answer 6

during the initial takeoff roll in a crosswind is generally the same as the technique used in a normal takeoff roll, except that the pilot needs to apply aileron pressure into the crosswind.

Lift-Off
As the nose-wheel raises off of the runway, the pilot should hold aileron pressure into the wind. This may cause the downwind wing to rise and the downwind main wheel to lift off the runway first, with the remainder of the takeoff roll being made on that one main wheel. This is acceptable and is preferable to side-skipping.
as the aircraft establishes its climb, the nose should be turned into the wind to offset the crosswind, wings brought to level, and rudder input adjusted to maintain runway alignment (crabbing).

common errors made while performing crosswind takeoffs include the following:
⦁ Failure to review AFM/POH performance and charts prior to takeoff.
⦁ Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing onto the active runway.
⦁ Using less than full aileron pressure into the wind initially on the takeoff roll.
⦁ Mechanical use of aileron control rather than judging lateral position of airplane on runway from
visual clues and applying sufficient aileron to keep airplane centered laterally on runway.
⦁ Side-skipping due to improper aileron application.
⦁ Inadequate rudder control to maintain airplane parallel to centerline and pointed straight ahead in
alignment with visual references.
⦁ Excessive aileron input in the latter stage of the takeoff roll resulting in a steep bank into the wind at
lift-off.
⦁ Inadequate drift correction after lift-off.

Question 7

Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum Performance Climb

Answer 7

Objective
performing takeoffs and climbs from fields where the takeoff area is short or the available takeoff area is restricted by obstructions, the pilot should operate the airplane at the maximum limit of its takeoff performance capabilities.

short field requires the takeoff to be started from the very beginning of the takeoff area.
As VX approaches, the pilot should apply back-elevator pressure until reaching the appropriate VX attitude to ensure a smooth and firm lift-off, or rotation.
maintain a wings-level climb at VX until all obstacles have been cleared, or if no obstacles are present, until reaching an altitude of at least 50 feet above the takeoff surface.

Common errors in the performance of short-field takeoffs and maximum performance climbs are:
⦁ Failure to review AFM/POH and performance charts prior to takeoff. ⦁ Failure to adequately clear the area.
⦁ Failure to utilize all available runway/takeoff area.
⦁ Failure to have the airplane properly trimmed prior to takeoff.
⦁ Premature lift-off resulting in high drag.
⦁ Holding the airplane on the ground unnecessarily with excessive forward-elevator pressure. ⦁ Inadequate rotation resulting in excessive speed after lift-off.
⦁ Inability to attain/maintain VX.
⦁ Fixation on the airspeed indicator during initial climb.
⦁ Premature retraction of landing gear and/or wing flaps.

Question 8

Soft/Rough-Field Takeoff and Climb

Answer 8

Objective
Getting the airplane airborne as quickly as possible to eliminate the drag caused by tall grass, soft sand, mud, and snow and may require climbing over an obstacle.

After the airplane becomes airborne, the pilot should gently lower the nose with the wheels clear of the surface to allow the airplane to accelerate to a minimum safe climb out speed,

Common errors in the performance of soft/rough field takeoff and climbs are:
⦁ Failure to review AFM/POH and performance charts prior to takeoff.
⦁ Failure to adequately clear the area.
⦁ Insufficient back-elevator pressure during initial takeoff roll resulting in inadequate AOA.
⦁ Failure to cross-check engine instruments for indications of proper operation after applying power. ⦁ Poor directional control.
⦁ Climbing too high after lift-off and not levelng off low enough to maintain ground effect attitude. ⦁ Abrupt and/or excessive elevator control while attempting to level off and accelerate after liftoff.
⦁ Allowing the airplane to “mush” or settle resulting in an inadvertant touchdown after lift-off.
⦁ Attempting to climb our of ground effect area before attaining sufficient climb speed.
⦁ Failure to anticipate an increase in pitch attitude as the airplane climbs our of ground effect.

Question 9

Rejected Takeoff/Engine Failure

Answer 9

Objective
Simulate circumstances such as a malfunctioning powerplant, inadequate acceleration, runway incursion, or air traffic conflict may be reasons for a rejected takeoff.
Prior to takeoff, the pilot should identify a point along the runway at which the airplane should be airborne. If that point is reached and the airplane is not airborne, immediate action should be taken to discontinue the takeoff.
In the event a takeoff is rejected, the power is reduced to idle and maximum braking applied while maintaining directional control

Question 10

Rectangular Course

Answer 10

Objective
The rectangular course is a training maneuver in which the airplane maintains an equal distance from all sides of the selected rectangular references. The maneuver is accomplished to replicate the airport traffic pattern that an airplane typically maneuvers while landing.
Maintaining a specific relationship between the airplane and the ground.
⦁ Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground-based references, manipulating the flight controls, and
scanning for outside hazards and instrument indications.
⦁ Adjusting the bank angle during turns to correct for groundspeed changes in order to maintain constant- radius turns.
⦁ Rolling out from a turn with the required wind correction angle to compensate for any drift caused by the wind.
⦁ Establishing and correcting the wind correction angle in order to maintain the track over the ground.
⦁ Preparing the pilot for the airport traffic pattern and subsequent landing pattern practice.

Execute
first locate a square field, a rectangular field, or an area with suitable ground references on all four sides.
entry into the maneuver downwind.
turn from the downwind leg onto the base leg is entered with a relatively steep bank angle.
lateral drift and compensate by turning more than 90°
Next turn base to upwind
medium-banked turn with coordinated aileron and rudder pressures. Less than
turn to the upwind leg is less than 90°.
upwind leg position to the crosswind leg
shallow-banked turn, less than 90°.
back to the downwind leg
medium-banked angle and a turn greater than 90°

common errors made while performing rectangular courses:

1. Failure to adequately clear the surrounding area for safety hazards, initially and throughout the maneuver. 2. Failure to establish a constant, level altitude prior to entering the maneuver.
2. Failure to maintain altitude during the maneuver.
3. Failure to properly assess wind direction.
4. Failure to establish the appropriate wind correction angle.
5. Failure to apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressure, resulting in slips and skids.
6. Failure to manipulate the flight controls in a smooth and continuous manner.
7. Failure to properly divide attention between airplane control and orientation with ground references. 9. Failure to execute turns with accurate timing.

Question 11

Turns Around a Point

Answer 11

The maneuver is a 360°
constant radius turn around a single ground-based reference point
higher groundspeeds require steeper banks and slower ground speeds require shallower banks.
The objectives
of turns around a point are as follows:
⦁ Maintaining a specific relationship between the airplane and the ground.
⦁ Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground-based references, manipulating the flight controls, and
scanning for outside hazards and instrument indications.
⦁ Adjusting the bank angle during turns to correct for groundspeed changes in order to maintain a constant
radius turn—steeper bank angles for higher ground speeds, shallow bank angles for slower groundspeeds.
⦁ Improving competency in managing the quickly-changing bank angles.
⦁ Establishing and adjusting the wind correction angle in order to maintain the track over the ground.
⦁ Developing the ability to compensate for drift in quickly-changing orientations.
⦁ Developing further awareness that the radius of a turn is correlated to the bank angle.
common errors in the performance of turns around a point:
1. Failure to adequately clear the surrounding area for safety hazards, initially and throughout the maneuver.
2. Failure to establish a constant, level altitude prior to entering the maneuver.
3. Failure to maintain altitude during the maneuver.
4. Failure to properly assess wind direction.
5. Failure to properly execute constant-radius turns.
6. Failure to manipulate the flight controls in a smooth and continuous manner.
7. Failure to establish the appropriate wind correction angle.
8. Failure to apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressure, resulting in slips or skids.

Question 12

S-Turns

Answer 12

ground reference maneuver presents a practical application
for the correction of wind during a turn.
The objectives of S-turns across a road (or line) are as follows:
⦁ Maintaining a specific relationship between the airplane and the ground.
⦁ Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground-based references, manipulating the flight controls, and
scanning for outside hazards and instrument indications.
⦁ Adjusting the bank angle during turns to correct for groundspeed changes in order to maintain a constantradius turn—steeper bank angles for higher groundspeeds, shallow bank angles for slower groundspeeds.
⦁ Rolling out from a turn with the required wind correction angle to compensate for any drift cause by the
wind.
⦁ Establishing and correcting the wind correction angle in order to maintain the track over the ground.
⦁ Developing the ability to compensate for drift in quickly-changing orientations.
⦁ Arriving at specific points on required headings

common errors made while performing S-turns across a road:

1. Failure to adequately clear surrounding area for safety hazards, initially and throughout the maneuver.
2. Failure to establish a constant, level altitude prior to entering the maneuver.
3. Failure to maintain altitude during the maneuver.
4. Failure to properly assess wind direction.
5. Failure to properly execute constant-radius turns.
6. Failure to manipulate the flight controls in a smooth and continuous manner when transitioning into turns.
7. Failure to establish the appropriate wind correction angle.
8. Failure to apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressure, resulting in slips or skids.

Question 13

Eights on Pylons

Answer 13

performing eights on pylons, the pilot imagines there is a line parallel to the airplane’s lateral axis that extends from the pilot’s
eyes to the pylon.
The altitude that is appropriate for eights on pylons is called the “pivotal altitude” and is determined by the airplane’s groundspeed
common errors in the performance of eights on pylons are:
1. Failure to adequately clear the surrounding area for safety hazards, initially and throughout the maneuver.
2. Skidding or slipping in turns (whether trying to hold the pylon with rudder or not).
3. Excessive gain or loss of altitude.
4. Poor choice of pylons.
5. Not entering the pylon turns into the wind.
6. Failure to assume a heading when flying between pylons that will compensate sufficiently for drift.
7. Failure to time the bank so that the turn entry is completed with the pylon in position.
8. Abrupt control usage.
9. Inability to select pivotal altitude.

Question 14

Normal Approach and Landing

Answer 14

landing are divided into five phases:

1. the base leg
2. the final approach
3. the round out (flare)
4. the touchdown
5. the after-landing roll

Base Leg
target airspeed of approximately 1.4
VSO—the stalling speed in the landing configuration.

Final Approach
align the longitudinal axis of the airplane with the centerline of the runway
or landing surface.
airspeed or 1.3 VSO
land in the center of the first third of the runway
on final approach at a constant decent rate and airspeed travel in a straight line towards aiming point

Common errors in the performance of normal approaches and landings are:

1. Failure to complete the landing checklist in a timely manner.
2. Inadequate wind drift correction on the base leg.
3. An overshooting, undershooting, too steep, or too shallow a turn onto final approach.
4. A skidding turn from base leg to final approach as a result of overshooting/inadequate wind drift correction.
5. Poor coordination during turn from base to final approach.
6. Unstable approach.
7. Failure to adequately compensate for flap extension.
8. Poor trim technique on final approach.
9. Attempting to maintain altitude or reach the runway using elevator alone.
10. Focusing too close to the airplane resulting in a too high round out.
11. Focusing too far from the airplane resulting in a too low round out.
12. Touching down prior to attaining proper landing attitude.
13. Failure to hold sufficient back-elevator pressure after touchdown.
14. Excessive braking after touchdown.
15. Loss of aircraft control during touchdown and rollout.

Question 15

Go-Arounds (Rejected Landings)

Answer 15

A go-around is a normal maneuver that is used when approach and landing parameters deviate from expectations or when it is hazardous
to continue. Situations such as air traffic control (ATC) requirements, unexpected appearance of hazards on the runway, overtaking
another airplane, wind shear, wake turbulence, mechanical failure, or an unstable approach are all reasons to discontinue a landing
approach.

The proper execution of a go-around maneuver includes three cardinal principles:

1. Power
2. Attitude
3. Configuration

Common errors in the performance of go-arounds (rejected landings) are:

1. Failure to recognize a condition that warrants a rejected landing.
2. Indecision.
3. Delay in initiating a go-around.
4. Failure to apply maximum allowable power in a timely manner.
5. Abrupt power application.
6. Improper pitch attitude.
7. Failure to configure the airplane appropriately.
8. Attempting to climb out of ground effect prematurely.
9. Failure to adequately compensate for torque/P factor.
10. Loss of aircraft control.

Question 16

Intentional Slips

Answer 16

Intentional slips, however, are used to dissipate altitude without increasing airspeed and/
or to adjust airplane ground track during a crosswind.

two types of intentional slips: sideslip and forward slips
Sideslips are frequently used when landing with a crosswind to keep
the aircraft aligned with the runway centerline
A forward slip is used to dissipate altitude and increase descent rate without increasing airspeed. In a forward slip, the airplane’s direction
of motion continues the same as before the slip was begun

Common errors with forward slips to a landing:

1. Incorrect pitch adjustments that result in poor airspeed control.
2. Reacting to erroneous airspeed indications.
3. Using excess power while trying to lose altitude.
4. A slip in the same direction as any crosswind.
5. Poor glidepath control.
6. Late transition to a sideslip during landing with crosswinds.
7. Landing without the longitudinal axis parallel to runway.
8. Landing off the centerline

Question 17

Crosswind Approach and Landing

Answer 17

two usual methods of accomplishing a crosswind approach and landing—the crab method and the wing-low (sideslip) method.
If a long final approach is being flown, one option
is to use the crab method initially and smoothly transition to the wing-low method before the round out is started.

Common errors in the performance of crosswind approaches and landings are:

1. Attempted landing in crosswinds that exceed the airplane’s maximum demonstrated crosswind component.
2. Undershooting or overshooting the turn from base leg to final approach.
3. Inadequate compensation for wind drift on final approach.
4. Unstable approach.
5. Excessive sink rate or too low an airspeed from increased drag and reduced vertical lift during sideslip.
6. Failure to touch down with the longitudinal axis aligned with the runway.
7. Touching down while drifting.
8. Excessive airspeed on touchdown.
9. Failure to apply appropriate flight control inputs during rollout.
10. Failure to maintain direction control on rollout.
11. Excessive braking.
12. Loss of aircraft control.

Question 18

Short-Field Approach and Landing

Answer 18

approaches and landings at fields with a relatively short landing
area or where an approach is made over obstacles that limit the available landing area.

The short-field approach and landing is an accuracy approach to an aiming point.

Touchdown should occur at the minimum controllable airspeed
aerodynamic braking to assist in deceleration

Common errors in the performance of short-field approaches and landings are:

1. A final approach that necessitates an overly steep approach and high sink rate.
2. Unstable approach.
3. Undue delay in initiating glide path corrections.
4. Too low an airspeed on final resulting in inability to flare properly and landing hard.
5. Too high an airspeed resulting in floating on round out.
6. Prematurely reducing power to idle on round out resulting in hard landing.
7. Touchdown with excessive airspeed.
8. Excessive and/or unnecessary braking after touchdown.
9. Failure to maintain directional control.
10. Failure to recognize and abort a poor approach that cannot be completed safely

Question 19

Soft-Field Approach and Landing

Answer 19

Landing on fields that are rough or have soft surfaces, such as snow, sand, mud, or tall grass, requires unique procedures
The final-approach airspeed used for short-field landings is equally appropriate to soft-field landings.
Touchdown on a soft or rough field is made at the lowest possible airspeed with the airplane in a nose-high pitch attitude.
Once committed to a landing, the pilot should gently lower the nose-wheel to the surface.
use of brakes on a soft field is not needed and should be avoided as this may tend to impose a heavy load on the nose-gear due to
premature or hard contact with the landing surface, causing the nose-wheel to dig in

Common errors in the performance of soft-field approaches and landings are:

1. Excessive descent rate on final approach.
2. Excessive airspeed on final approach.
3. Unstable approach.
4. Round out too high above the runway surface.
5. Poor power management during round out and touchdown.
6. Hard touchdown.
7. Inadequate control of the airplane weight transfer from wings to wheels after touchdown.
8. Allowing the nose-wheel to “fall” to the runway after touchdown rather than controlling its descent.

Question 20

Power-Off Accuracy Approaches

Answer 20

The objective is to instill in the pilot the judgment and procedures
necessary for accurately flying the airplane, without power, to a safe landing.
AsKa:
Am I high or Low, Fast or Slow

Common errors in the performance of power-off accuracy approaches are:

1. Downwind leg is too far from the runway/landing area.
2. Overextension of downwind leg resulting from a tailwind.
3. Inadequate compensation for wind drift on base leg.
4. Skidding turns in an effort to increase gliding distance.
5. Failure to lower landing gear in retractable gear airplanes.
6. Attempting to “stretch” the glide during an undershoot.
7. Premature flap extension/landing gear extension.
8. Use of throttle to increase the glide instead of merely clearing the engine.
9. Forcing the airplane onto the runway in order to avoid overshooting the designated landing spot.

Question 21

Steep Turns

Answer 21

The objective of the steep turn is to develop a pilot’s skill in flight control smoothness and coordination, an awareness of the
airplane’s orientation to outside references, division of attention between flight control applications, and the constant need to scan
for hazards and other traffic in the area.

Common errors when performing steep turns are:

1. Not clearing the area
2. Inadequate pitch control on entry or rollout
3. Gaining or losing altitude
4. Failure to maintain constant bank angle
5. Poor flight control coordination
6. Ineffective use of trim
7. Ineffective use of power
8. Inadequate airspeed control
9. Becoming disoriented
10. Performing by reference to the flight instruments rather than visual references
11. Failure to scan for other traffic during the maneuver
12. Attempting to start recovery prematurely
13. Failure to stop the turn on the designated heading