Aggression Flashcards
(166 cards)
1
Q
What does the limbic system do?
A
controls a range of emotional behaviours including aggression
2
Q
What structure of the limbic system is associated with aggression?
A
the amygdala
3
Q
What is the role of the amygdala?
A
responsible for quickly evaluating the emotional importance of sensory info and prompting appropriate repsonses including aggression
4
Q
What are the links with aggression and the amygdala?
A
tumour, damage or atypical development makes aggressive behaviour more likely
5
Q
What did Pardini et al find supporting the amygdala in aggression?
A
smaller amygdala = higher levels of aggression and violence
6
Q
What did Ervin et al find on the amygdala in aggression?
A
electrical stimulation of a patient’s amygdala lead to facial grimicing and anger
7
Q
What is the issue with Ervin’s patient study on the amygdala?
A
it was an atypical patient with epilepsy = cannot generalise
8
Q
What was kluver and Bucy’s study on the amygdala in aggression?
A
destroying the amygdala in aggressive monkeys = less aggressive behaviour
tells us little about human aggression
9
Q
What other structure of the brain is responsible for aggression?
A
the orbitofrontal cortex - OFC
10
Q
What is the role of the OFC?
A
regulates the emotional responses driven by the amygdala
11
Q
What can damage to the OFC lead to?
A
impulsivity and loss of control
12
Q
What was Coccaro et al’s study for the role of the OFC in aggression?
A
patients with psych disorders that feature aggression = activity in the OFC was reduced
13
Q
What was Raine et al’s study for the role of the OFC in aggression?
A
brain activity in 41 murderers using PET scans = atypical functioning of the OFC and amygdala
14
Q
What are the 2 neural explainations of aggression?
A
serotonin
limbic system
15
Q
What is serotonin?
A
neurotransmitter involved in regulating processes like sleep and memory
16
Q
What effect does serotonin have on the amygdala?
A
inhibits the firing of the amydala
17
Q
What levels of serotonin are associated with aggression, impulsivity and loss of control?
A
low levels
18
Q
What was found on the waste product of serotonin in aggression?
A
levels of waste product from serotonin from violent impulsive offenders were significantly lower and they also suffered from sleep irregularities
19
Q
What did Raleigh find on the influence of tryptophan diets in monkeys?
A
Tryptophan increases serotonin levels = monkeys with a diet with high tryptophan were less aggressive
20
Q
What is the prac application to manipulating tryptophan in diets?
A
can raise serotonin levels in highly aggressive prisoners and unpredictable psych patients
however there are ethical issues with this
21
Q
What is the issue with saying serotonin influences aggression?
A
complex = neural and hormonal also involved
high levels of serotonin also found to increase aggression = little significance has been found on the relationship with serotonin and aggression
22
Q
What hormone influences aggression?
A
testosterone
23
Q
What is testosterone?
A
an androgen (male sex hormone) secreted by the testes
little sectreted by the ovaries
24
Q
What is the link between aggression and testosterone?
A
higher levels of aggression = higher levels of testosterone
25
Between what ages do males produce the most testosterone?
15-25 = the group most likely to commit violent crimes
26
What did Wagner do to mice to study testosterone's affect on aggression?
castrated male mice = aggression reduced
injected testosterone = aggression increased
castration has been used for domestic animal and farm animals
27
What was Dabbs study on testosterone in male prisoners?
measured testosterone in the salia of 692 adult male prisoners
higher levels in more violent offenders = committed unprovoked acts of violence
28
What was Carre's dual-hormone hypothesis?
high levels of testosterone lead to aggressive behaviour only when cortisol levels are low
29
What happens when cortisol levels are high?
testosterone's influence on aggression is blocked
30
What type of behaviours does testosterone increase?
status-seeking behaviours = aggression is 1 of them
31
What is the genetic theory of aggression?
genes are the cause of aagressive behaviour and it can be passed on from 1 generation to the next
32
What gene is found to have an influence on aggression?
the MAOA gene
33
What is the role of the MAOA GENE?
responsible for regulating the enzyme MAOA
34
What is the role of the MAOA enzyme?
breaks down neurotransmitters serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine, removing excess amounts and allowing neurons to communicate more effectively
35
How does the MAOA gene cause aggression?
if there is a dsfynction in the MAOA gene, the enzyme doesn't regulate the levels of serotonin properly = aggressive behaviour
36
What are the 2 forms of the MAOA gene?
L variant = low activity
H variant = high activity
37
Which form of the MAOA gene is likely to lead to aggression?
L varient
38
What was McDermott's study involving hot sauce and the MAOA gene?
the MAOA-L gene was more likely to force someone to eat hot chilli sauce despite having to pay than someone with the MAOA-H gene
39
What was Caspi's study on anti-social behaviour in male kids and the MAOA gene?
500 male children
looked at their anti-social behaviour when they grew up
L variant support in aggression BUT only if they had been maltreated as children = the right environment causes aggression, genetics simply predispose
an interactionist app should be taken
40
What was Lagerspetz selective breeding study and the MAOA gene?
lab based selective breeding
isolate a group of mice
interbred the aggressive mice so that after 19 generations, the rates of aggression were x10 higher
41
What was Coccaro's study on twins and the MAOA gene?
used a questionaire to measure hostility in male ps
concordance rates:
MZ = 50%
DZ = 19%
genetic factors play a part but the environment is important too
42
What is the evolutionary explaination of aggression?
suggests that present day behaviours come from our remote human ancestors because they were adapting and these behaviours proposed an advantage for surviving, reproducing and passing on their genes
43
What are the 2 ways that aggression can be seen as evolutionary?
sexual competition
sexual jealousy
44
What is sexual competition?
competing with other males to win access to females - aggression was needed to eliminate competition
45
What is sexual jealousy?
males feared losing their mate to another male so they need to find and retain their mates is the root of majority of male aggressive behaviour
46
What has sexual jealousy led to in terms of adaptive responses?
mate-retention strategies to enhance reproductive fitness and to avoid fear of cuckoldry
47
What is cuckoldry?
raising offspring that isnt your own without knowing
48
Why does the evolutionary approach to aggression say females are less aggressive?
females are less aggressive = her survival is crucial for the survival of her offspring
49
What is Puts' findings on physiological features supporting sexual competition?
mals have 75% more muscle mass than females = men have evolved as a result of fighting each other
men with the strongest bones and muscles would have been able to fight off competition easier = more likely to pass on genes
50
What was found on women who have been abused and sexual jealousy?
women who have been beaten by their male partners recall extreme jealousy on part of their husbands or boyfriends as the key cause of aggression
51
What did Daly and Wilson find on sexual jealousy and violence?
men have evolved different stategies to deter their partners from acts of infedility = guarding, spying, threats and violence
sexual jealousy was the underlying factor in 58 out of 214 murder cases
52
What is the practical application of research done on male tactics in sexual jealousy?
particular tactics can be early indicators of violence
can be used to alert friends and family to the danger signs that can lead o further violence
53
How is the evolutionary explanation of aggression gender bias?
cannot account for female violence towards a male partner
recent family conflict studies show that there are equal rates of assaults by men and women
54
How are gender differences in aggression accounted for by the evolutionary app?
women are more likely to engage in verbal violence than physical
verbal aggression is less risky in terms of being hurt = more likely to survive for children
55
How does the evolutionary app to aggression have a deterministic view?
sexual jealousy is determined by genetic factors ove which we have no control
56
What is an issue with the evolutionary app not supporting free will?
there is a danger that lack of free will can be used to justify crimes against women
57
What is the role of ethologists?
they study animal behaviour in natural environments in the context of evolutionary theory
58
What does Lorenz suggest on aggression (ethological)?
aggression is an adaptive instinct which has evolved to aid survival for different reasons
59
What are 3 ways aggression aids survival of animals?
1. ensures only strongest and fittest males pass on genes
2. disperse members of species more widely so resources are exhasusted less quickly and disease has less impact
3. maintain hierachy in socially organised animals
60
What are innate releasing mechanisms?
built-in structure in the brain that when triggered by environmental stimuli, causes a series of fixed action patterns
61
What are fixed action patterns?
sequence of pre-programmed, ritualistic behaviours carried out in a set order, triggered by an innate releasing mechanism
62
What is the role of fixed action patterns in animals?
deter another male away to prevent their genes from being passed on due to access to females and teritory
63
What did Lorenz state about fixed action patterns?
not designed to start physical fights = animals do not want to kill each other as it would cause the species to die
animals show appeasement displays
64
What is an appeasement display?
an action from an animal that signals to another animal that they surrender
65
What is Lorenz's action specific energy?
ritualistic signals can only occur for a certain amount of time as fixed action paterns only have a certain amount of energy dedicated to them
66
What is Lorenz's hydraulic model?
ritualistic signals can occur in the absence of a sign stimuli if too much action specific energy builds up
67
What was Tinbergen's research involving stickleback fish and fixed action patterns?
when presented with an object that was partially red, they will attack it, regardless whether it is fish-shaped or not
animals are innately programmed to respond aggressively
68
How do genetic and neural explainations support the ethological approach to aggression?
genetic = aggression is innate, the MAOA gene
neural = the amygdala's response supports innate releasing mechanism
provides ethological app more credibility and validity
69
How did Lehrman critisise Lorenz's instinctual explaination of aggression?
it underestimates the role of envrionmental factors in the development of species-typical aggressive behaviour patterns
fixed action patterns are not completly innate = learning and experience interact with genetics
cannot make assumptions as variation has been seen within members of the same species
70
Why was Lorenz's hydraulic model critisised?
research has shown that the performance of aggressive behaviour could provide further stimulus which actually makes further aggressive behaviour more likely instead of a reduced likelihood of aggression because of reduced energy
71
What did Goodall find on Chipanzees killing members of their own species?
male chipanzees worked together to kill another group of male chipanzees even when appeasement displays were shown
aggression is not always adaptive = contradicts
invalid explaination = based on lower order species like fish and birds not higher order species like chipanzees
72
Who developed the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
Dollard
73
What does the FAH state causes aggression?
all aggression is the result of frutration and the greater the frustration the greater the aggressive response
74
What is frustration?
when you are prevented from acheiving a goal
75
How does frustration cause aggression?
frustration causes an arousal of an aggressive drive that leads to aggressive behaviour - acting aggressively provides a cathartic effect
76
What is the cathartic effect?
pleasent feelings after releasing a strong emotion - acting aggressivly leads to a reduction in aggressive behaviour
77
What prevents us from acting aggressively according to FAH?
fear of punishment
78
What factors increase frustration?
- strong motivation to acheive a goal
- closer proximity to the goal
- expectations of acheiving the goal
- if being aggressive is likely to remove a barrier to the goal
79
How can people learn that being aggressive is helpful to acheiving goals?
being aggressive may help them to acheive their goals by removing obstacles and if the aggression doesnt lead to punishment
80
What is displacement for aggression?
taking your anger out on something or someone else that is seen as a scapegoat who didnt cause the frustration
81
Why do people displace anger?
the source that caused frustration is not availabe
or
fear of punishment if taken out on source of frustration
82
What was Geen's lab study using puzzles to support the FAH?
cause and effect established - lab
ps were deliberately frustrated by a confed while completing a jigsaw
they gave stronger shocks to the confed when he failed a task compared to the non-frustrated control group
83
What was Marcus-Newall et al meta-analysis on displacement supporting FAH?
valid - proves theory predictions
49 studies on displacement
ps who were more provoked were more likely to aggress an innocent person than those unprovoked
84
What was Priks study involving football supporters supporting the FAH?
real-world app
football supporters were more likely to throw missiles on the pitch and fight with opposition supporters when they were frustrated with the poor performance from their team
the fans good expectations were proved wrong - caused frustration
85
What is an issue with research on catharsis?
has little research support = more studies disprove it
86
What was bushman's study disproving the catharsis effect?
unvalid
ps who repeatedly hit a punch bag became more angry, doing nothing reduced aggression
FAH - should be reduced aggression
87
What did Berkowitz state on frustration causing aggression?
frustration doesnt always cause aggression and aggression can occur without frustration
unpleasent experiences, one is frustration, triggers negative feelings that lead to aggression
88
What was Berkowitz's revised FAH theory?
the negative affect theory = negative experiences (one being frustration) lead to negative feelings that causes aggression
89
What was Reifman et al's baseball players study supporting Berkowitz's negative affect theory?
baseball players were more aggressive when the temp was higher rather than they were frustrated
90
What does the SLT state how aggression occurs?
aggression is learnt through observation of role models in a social context, people imitate behaviour depending on mediational factors
91
What did Bandura state increases imitating aggression?
is the role model is someone we strongly identify with - same sex, same age
and if you see them being rewarded = vicarious reinforcement
self-efficacy
92
What reduced imitation according to bandura?
vicarious punishment = watched role model being punished for a behaviour - aggression
93
What is self-efficacy?
confidence in your own ability to carry out an action
94
How is self-efficacy developed?
if they imitate a behaviour and it was successful - more confident to repeat it
95
How does bandura bobo doll support SLT of aggression?
empirical support - valid
children learn through observation and imitation of models
96
What is the issue with Bandura's bobo doll study?
artificial and lacks realism----> low eco valid and non- applicable
bobo doll does not hit back like a human would - tells us little about everyday aggression
97
What was Gee and Leith's hocky players study supporting SLT in aggression?
North american hockey players were more aggressive than european players
NA players exposed to aggressive role models and less likely punished for aggressive behaviour
aggressive behaviour is acquired through seeing the consequences of other peoples behaviour
98
How can SLT of aggression be useful for explaining aggression in different situations?
explains why someone can be aggressive in 1 situation but not another = mediational processes involved like motivation
can predict behaviours by considering consequences
99
How does the SLT explain cultural differences in aggression?
valid theory
aggression not valued in some cultures - punished and not observed
if children exposed to an aggressive role model- aggression is more likely
100
Why is any social psychological explaination of aggression not a complete explaination?
they ignore bio factors and focus on nurture
biology creates potential for aggression but expression of aggression is learned
101
What are the 3 social psychological explanations of aggression?
social learning theory
frustration-aggression hypothesis theory
de-individuation
102
What is de-individuation?
the loss of personal identity and personal responsibility characterised by a reduction in self evaluation and less concern for others
103
When does de-individuation occur?
in a large group
104
Who developed de-individuation?
Zimbardo
105
How does being in a large group lead to aggression?
gives people 'a cloak of anonymity' that diminishes any personal consequences for their actions
less concern about negative evalution from others and therefore a reduction in guilt or shame
106
What are the 2 factors affecting deindividuation?
anonymity - uniforms
altered consciousness due to drugs or alcohol
107
How do uniforms increase aggression through individuation?
its more difficult to identify an individual - anonymity
reduces inner restraints for personal and social norms = they behave in a way they wouldnt normally
108
What was zimbardos study using female ps to support de-individuation?
4 female undergrads
gave another student electric shocks to aid learning
condition 1 = bulky lab coats, as a group given instructions, not introduced
condition 2 = own clothes, individually given instructions, name tags and introduced
deindividuated condition 1 have shocks x2 as long
109
What was Johnson and downing study on uniforms and de-individuation?
dressed ps in a mask and overalls like the KKK
or dressed as nurses
ps with masks and overalls gave higher shocks than control group
nurses gave lower shocks
other factors involved like the social roles we play as the rates should be equal if only uniform was a factor
110
What was Watson's cross cultural study on de-individuation?
warriors in 23 societies changed their appearance for conflict
those who changed their appearance with war paint and tribal costumes were more aggressive = hard to distinguish people
111
What is the practical app of de-individuation?
more street lighting and CCTV in areas known for anti-social behaviour
people are aware they are being watched and identified = less likely to commit anti-social acts
useful theory
112
How does the de-individuation theory have a narrow application?
aggression occurs in situations where the perpetrators are not deindividuared = eg road rage - identified by a number plate
only applies to certain situations
113
How is de-individuation gender biased?
deindividuation is more likely the cause of aggression in males than females
114
What are the 2 explainations for institutional aggression?
the importation model and the deprivation model
115
What is the dispositional explaination of institutional aggression?
the importation model
116
What is the situational explaination of institutional aggression?
the deprivation model
117
Who came up with the importation model?
Irwin and Cressey
118
What is the importation model state causes institutional aggression?
prisoners bring their own beliefs and values into prison with them = they are not 'blank slates' when they enter prison
aggression is a way of establishing power, status and access to resources
aggression is not the product of the environment
if there are enough individuals who value the aggression it will become the norm
119
What 3 studies support the importation model?
black inmates - higher aggression
Poole and Regoli
Mears et al
120
What was found on race and aggression in prisons?
US prisons
found black inmates had significantly higher levels of violent behaviour but lower rates of alcohol and drug-related misconduct than white inmates
these patterns parrallel racial differences in these behaviours in US society
121
What did Poole and Regoli find on juvenile delinquents?
for juvenile deliquents the best predictor of inmate aggression was pre-insitutional aggression
122
What was Mears at al study on cultural beliefs systems and inmate aggression?
the inmates 'code of street' outside of prison correlated to the level of violence within the prison
mostly true for inmates that lacked family support and were involved in gangs
practical apps
123
What are the practical applications of research on the importation model?
possible to predict which prisoners are most likely to be aggressive in prison by looking at their outside behaviour = can arrange them in prison accordingly
124
What are issues with the importation model?
ignores the role of the prison environment as a factor
androcentric - not valid
125
What doe the deprivation model say causes inmate aggression?
aggression is a product of the stressful and oppressive conditions of the institution
aggression is a way to reduce stress, (cathartic) obtain desired resources and gain control over their lives
aggression is the result of the prison environment
126
What did skyes find the common factors of prisons mostly lead to aggression?
loss of freedom
loss of relationships
boredem
lack of security
over-crowding
heat
noise
127
What 3 studies support the deprivation model?
De lisi et al
McCorkle
Wilson
128
What was delisi et al study supporting deprivation model and disproves the importation model on street gangs
prisoners with prior street gang involvement were NO more likely to behave more aggressively than others in prison
prisons tend to isolate gang members from other prisoners to avoid violence
129
What was McCorkle's study on deprivation factors?
looked at 371 prisons in the US and found factors such as overcrowding, lack of meaningful activity and lack of privacy significantly linfluenced inmate assaults on both other inmates and staff
130
What did Franklin et al find suggesting that the deprivation model is affected by individual differences?
crowded prison conditions increased aggression in younger prisoners aged 18-25 more than older ones
131
What was Wilson's study on changing prison conditions to support the deprivation model?
he changed the prison conditions so that they were less overcrowded, less noisy, cooler and added windows
this eradicated assaults on inmates and staff
they should make prisons a more comfortable environment
132
What are the issues of the deprivation model?
importation model more valid = stronger explaination
evidence for Import and deprivation are contradictory = interactionist app should be taken
androcentric
133
What are media influences?
changes in behaviour that are attributed to exposure to media such as TV or computer games
134
What was Anderson et al (2000) lab study on media influences on aggression?
there was a short term increase of physiological arousal, hostile feelings and aggressive behaviour
measured arousal, hostility and aggressive behaviour
student ps blasted their opponents with white noise for longer after playing an aggressive game compared to a non-violent game (puzzle) and they rated themselves higher on the hostility scale
135
How was hostility measured in Anderson et al (2000) lab study?
self- report = ps rated themselves on a hostility scale
136
How was arousal measured in Anderson et at (2000) lab study?
blood presure and heart rate
137
What are the good things with Anderson et al (2000) lab research?
lab = c and e, confidence in results
EV are controlled = internal validity
138
What are the issues with Anderson et al (2000) lab study?
lacks eco valid = blasting white noise is artificial, does not involve retaliation = limits generaliability
only measures short term effect
student sample = specific, possible co-v as they could play more games than younger and older people
self-report = subjective, social desiribility bias, lacks internal valid
139
What was DeLisi et al correlational study on computer games effects on aggression?
227 juvenile offenders with history of aggressive behaviour
structured interviews
found a significant correlation with how often they played violent CG and how much they enjoyed them with their level of aggression
computer games is a significant risk factor for aggression
140
What are the good things withe DeLisi et al's correlational study on CG and aggression?
high pop valid = 227 sample size, representative
better temporal validity than lab experiment = 2013
structure interviews = rich in detail, more comfortable
realistic forms of aggression = they had commited violent acts, externally valid
141
What are the issues with DeLisi et al's correlational study on CP and aggression?
no C and E = less applicable, less control of EVs eg: upbringings and backgrounds
lacks generalisability (low pop valid) = specific sample= juvenile delinquents
social desirability bias for interviews
142
What was Anderson et al (2007) longitudinal study on CP influence on aggression?
x430 7-9 year olds
surveyed at 2 points of the school year by questionaire to the child, peers and teachers
children who had high exposure to violent video games were more verbally and physically aggressive and less pro-social behaviour
long-term effects of video games on aggression
143
What are the good things about Anderson et al (2007) long study on CP and aggression?
large sample = representative
looked at long term effects which has little research
giving questionaires to peers and teachers = improves internal validity
144
What are the issues about Anderson et al (2007) long study on CP and aggression?
sample = children may find it difficult to complete questionaire, specific = low pop valid,
questionaires = children may have exaggerated answers
correlational = no C and E
Co-Vs = role models, cannot control them
145
What is an issue with all research on computer games and aggression?
they are deterministic = ignores free will
ignores other factors like males have more testosterone and are also more likely to play violent computer games as they are targeted towards males
it assumes that all people who play video games are aggressive
146
How are individual differences ignored in research on computer games and aggression?
people with a more aggressive personality type may engage in a more aggressive style of game-playing
age = younger players have a more impressionable brain so their morals are not yet developed
upbringing = if aggression was promoted or not
147
What are the 3 explainations for media influences of aggression?
desensitisation
disinhibiton
cognitive priming
148
What is desensitisation?
habitually viewing agressive CP diminishes the impact of violence leading to less anxiety and physiological arousal
also leads to negative attitiudes towards violence weaken and less empathy for victims
149
Why does desensitisation lead to aggression (empathy explaination)?
repeated exposure to violence leaves us less sensitive to the state of victims
empathy inhibits us from acting aggressively, however, constant exposure dulls our empathetic responses and people are not inhibited from acting aggressive
150
What 2 studies support desensitisation?
Bushman
Carnagey et al
151
What was Bushmans study on desensitisation?
ps took longer to help someone injured in a fight after plaing 20 mins of a violent game compared to ps playing a non-violent game = reduction in empathy
152
What was Carnagey et al's study supporting desensitisation?
ps played a violent game for 20 mins
then shown a 10 min video of real life violence
ps had lower heart rate and skin conductance (sweating) compared to control who played a non-violent game
153
What are the issues with Carnagey et al's study?
artificial = low eco valid as they are not in the actual situation, simply watching a video so low emotional response
154
What is the issue of desensitisation with individual differences?
media exposure is widepread however we are not all affected the same way and equally
must be other life experiences or genetic predispositions as there are individual differences in desensitisation experienced
155
What is disinhibiton?
people are naturally aggressive however, the impulses to act aggressive are held in check by social and psychological inhibitions
these inhibitions are learnt through social transmission
repeated exposure = leads to new social norms where aggression is socially accepted
156
What is the issue with disinhibiton and individual differences?
the extent in which someone becomes involved in the media they experience will vary
may only occur in people fully engage and not those easily distracted by external stimuli
or in households with strong normas against violence
narrows the no. of people who can be affected this way = less applicable and generalisable
157
What study goes against disinhibition?
Goranson = boxing study
158
What was Goranson's study on diinhibition?
showed ps a boxing match with 2 diff endings = death or no consequences
ps who saw no consequences were more likely to be aggressive than those who saw the death
disinhibition is more likely when no consequences are shown
159
What is cognitive priming?
the activation of existing aggressive thoughts and feelings
160
How does cognitive priming explain why children act aggressively after watching aggression on TV?
they are primed to act aggressively because a network of memories are retrived to act aggressively
frequent exposure = children store scripts for aggressive behaviour, these can be recalled in later situations if any cue from the original situation is present
161
What 2 studies support cognitive priming?
Anderson and Dill
Murray et al
162
What did Anderson and Dill find to support cognitive priming?
individuals who played violent CP had more cognitive accessible aggressive thoughts than individuals who played non-violent games
a single incident of violent game primed aggressive thoughts in ps
163
What was murray et al's study supporting cognitive priming?
fMRI on children and they were shown aggressive or non-aggressive films
there was an increase in activity in the area of the brain associated with memory and emotion when watching aggressive film
memories were formed which can later react to cues
scientific
164
What is an issue with research on cognitive priming?
it is correlational = no C and E
agressive people could choose to watch violent media not the media causing aggression
165
How does high levels of testosterone cause aggression?
reduces activity in the OFC
the OFC is less able to regulate aggressive impulses coming from the limbic system = less self control
166
What was Brunner's family case study on the MAOA gene in aggression?
the males in the family had a history of impulsive aggression - they had low activity MAOA genes
genetic basis and leads to a neurological abnormality
