Gender Flashcards
(183 cards)
1
Q
What is the sex of a person?
A
the biological status of being male or female determined by chromosomes at conception
2
Q
What is gender?
A
the psychological, social and cultural status of being masculine or feminine including attitudes, behaviours and social roles associated with being male or female
3
Q
Why might someones gender not match their sex?
A
chromosomal or hormonal issues = determining sex at birth is difficult
gender develops in an atypical way leading to gender dysphoria
4
Q
What are the differences between sex and gender?
A
- sex is biological, gender is psych and socially developed
- sex is male or female, gender is masc or fem
- chromosomes vs attitudes and characteristics
- nature vs nurture
5
Q
What are sex role stereotypes?
A
overgeneralised and oversimplified beliefs that are applied to all members of one sex = particular characteristics are said to be typical of male or females
6
Q
What is an issue with sex role stereotypes for people?
A
people tend to fufill expectations so it may restrict individuals from acheiving their potential
those who counter = experience discrimination and predujice
7
Q
How can sex role stereotypes lead to predujice?
A
prevent us from seeing the true qualities of some people = we assume they have certain characteristics based on their sex
we can make mistakes using stereotypes to judge others
8
Q
What study disproved sex role stereotypes?
A
Maccoby and Jacklin
9
Q
What did Maccoby and Jacklin find to disprove sex role stereotypes?
A
there is little evidence to support gender differences
may be based on assumptions
gender differences were only found in verbal and spatial ability, mathematical reasoning and aggression
10
Q
What is an issue with Maccoby and Jacklin’s review found on research of sex role stereotype research?
A
the review showed publication bias in research on gender differences = they excluded research that didnt find gender differences- exaggeration of differences
11
Q
What 2 studies support sex role stereotypes?
A
Ingalhalikar
Smith and lloyd
12
Q
What did Ingalhalikar find to support sex role stereotypes using MRI?
A
there were better connections in women’s brains between hemispheres
mens brains = more activity in individual parts especially the cerebellum = motor skills
supports women are better at multi-tasking
shows a bio differences
13
Q
What was smith and lloyds study supporting sex role stereotypes using babies?
A
mothers were given a 6 month old baby to play with (same baby in both conds)
either:
1. baby called Adam and dressed in blue
2. baby called beth and dressed in pink
Boy baby = offered active toys and play like a squeaky hammer
girl baby = more likely to cradle
14
Q
What does smith and lloyd’s study suggest about sex role stereotypes and babies?
A
the actual sex of the baby had no effect on the mother
girls and boys are treated differently right from babyhood
differences between males and females may form due to experience and not innate gender differences
15
Q
What are some issues with Smith and Lloyds study supporting sex role stereotypes?
A
ethics = harm to babies - learn behaviours, harm to mother = fear of judgement
observations = social desirability and demand characteristics of mothers
16
Q
What is androgyny?
A
an EQUAL mix of gender role characteristics - people show a combination of feminine and masc qualities
17
Q
Why did Sandra Bem state being androgynous is advantageous?
A
they have a wider range of behaviours for different situations to be more flexible = can adapt and understand others
you are more psychologically healthy
18
Q
What does Bem’s Sex Role (BSRI) Inventory do?
A
measures androgyny
19
Q
How was the BSRI made?
A
a questionaire with 60 characteristics from American students
- 20 were feminine rated qualities
- 20 were masculine rated qualities
- 20 were neutral rated qualities
20
Q
How was the BSRI carried out to measure androgyny?
A
ps completed the questionaire by rating 1-7 on how true the characteristics were for themselves
low score on both (masc+fem) = undifferentiated
high score on both = androgynous
high on either (masc or fem) = masc or fem
21
Q
What study supports the BSRI?
A
Prakash et al
22
Q
What was Parkash et al study supporting the BSRI using indian women?
A
found a positive correlation between androgyny and mental health in indian women
those with higher masc score had less depression
supports bems idea that is psychologically healthy to be androgynous
23
Q
What is an issue with Prakash’s research that supports the BSRI?
A
masc traits are highly values in the indian culture - may not apply to men who score high on fems (androgynous)
flawed research - women could of gave social desirable ans
24
Q
How is Prakash’s research and Bem’s research gender biased?
A
beta bias = androgyny is psychologically healthy for females but not males
this should be recognised in Bems theory but its not
25
How does Bem's BSRI lack temporal validity?
the ideas of desirable masc and fam traits are relevant to 1970s social ideas but not todays
26
What was Hoffman and Borders study proving that the BSRI traits have poor temporal validity?
400 students rated items on the BSRI as masc or fem
the only items they rated as masc or fem were the words themselves
27
What are the issues with the BSRI relying on self-report?
deman characteristics
social desirability
cannot be make objective opinions of yourself
may lack validity
28
What prac app does Bems BSRI have?
if it is advantageous to be androgynous = parents should try to raise children to choose their own gender
useful research
however in reality this is difficult to do
29
What proves that the BSRI is reliable for measuring androgyny?
it has high test re-test reliability
30
How does the gene on the 23rd chromosomes lead to producing the sex of a baby?
the gene causes the release of hormones
31
How does the Y chromosome lead to a baby being a male?
causes the production of androgens - testosterone
32
What is the role of testosterone in sex?
development of testes and penis
33
Whatis the role of testosterone in gender?
it is released at higher quantiies at pubity which causes secondary sexual characteristics = facial hair and deepening voice
aggression
34
What is the role of hormones prenatally?
they determine the development of genitals
35
What is the role of hormones at puberty?
tiggers the development of secondary sexual characteristics
36
What will happen to a male who is insesitive to testosterone?
they will be less aggressive
develop less facial hair
higher pitched voice
37
What is the role of oestrogen in sex?
causes breast growth and the menstrual cycle
38
What is the role of oestrogen in gender?
higher emotional response
39
What is the role of oxytocin in sex?
stimulates lactation for breast feeding and orgasm
40
What is oxytocin known as?
the love hormone
41
What produces oxytocin?
the pituary gland
42
What produces oxytocin?
the pituitary gland
43
What is the role of oxytocin in gender?
promotes a tend and befriend response in women
makes people less anxious by reducing cortisol
44
Why do women have more oxytocin?
testosterone dimishses its effects but oestrogen increases its effects
45
What is Van Goozen et al study on transgender people and hormones?
injected the hormones of the sex they were transitioning to
transgender women (male to female) = decrease in aggression and visuospatial skills
transgender men (female to male) = showed the opposite
sex hormones influence gender-related behaviour
46
What is the case of David Reimer?
Born a boy called bruce - circumcision went wrong resulting in the loss of his penis
had surgery and hormone treatment to that of a girls and was raised as a girl - brenda
then reverted back to being a male - then committed suicide
shows role of bio may be stronger than up-bringing in gender development = nature support
47
What is the Batista family case?
4 children born with external female genitalia and rasied as girls
at puberty = surge in testosterone caused their male genitalia to appear externally = acually genetically XY
faulty gene at birth caused testosterone insesitivity
they accepted their male role without difficulty
48
What can be said about the batista girls accepting being males with ease?
the culture you belong to can influence how you feel and freedom to be what you want
this is a common condition in the dominican republic
49
What was Eisenegger at al study on testosterone in a bargaining game?
women who had been FALSELY told they had recieved testosterone behaved more unfairly in a bargaining game
shows the effect of expectations so there is not a simple relationship b/w hormones and behaviour
50
What does Eisenegger's study suggest abotu Van goozens findings on transgender ps?
findings may be due to expectations and desire to change rather than the direct effect of hormones
51
What did Tricker find disproving the role of testosterone in gender-related behaviour?
gave 43 males a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo
no sig differences in aggression were found after 10 weeks
hormones are not influential in gender related behaviours
52
What are the 2 atypical sex chromosome patterns?
Klinefelters syndrome and Turners syndrome
53
How are atypical sex chromosome patters developed?
they occur randomly during the fusion of the egg and sperm cells - not inherited genetically
54
What sex does Klinefelters affect?
males
55
What sex does Turners affect?
females
56
What is Klinefelters syndrome?
male with an extra X chromosome = XXY
increased levels of oestrogen and decreased levels of testosterone
57
What are the physical characteristics of Klinefelters?
reduced body hair
underdeveloped genitals
rounded body
long limbs
gynecosmastia - breast development
58
What are the psychological characteristics of Klinefelters?
poor reading ability
poor language skills
doesnt respond well to stress
poor memory and problem-solving skills
59
What is Turners syndrome?
females that only have 1 X chromosome
not enough oestrogen being produced
60
What are the physical characteristics of turners syndrome?
ovaries fail to develop = no menstrual cycle and infertile
webbed neck
appearance of a pre-pubescent girl
does not develop breasts
low hip to waist ratio
61
What are the psychological characteristics of turners syndrome?
higher reading ability
poor spatial awareness
socially immature
poor memory and maths skills
struggle to maintain social relationships
62
How many males does Klinefelters affect?
1 in 600
63
How many does Turners syndrome affect?
1 in 2000
64
How does research on atypical chromosome patterns support nature debate?
compare atypical people with typical people chromosomes
possible to see the psych and behavioural differeneces
therefore the diff have a biological basis and are the direct result of abnormal chromosome structure
innate influences have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour
65
How does research on atypical chromosome patterns ignore the nurture debate?
the chromosome abnormalities and the differences in behaviours are not causal
environ and social influences could be more responsible for behavioural differences
Turners = look younger so they may be treated as immature by their peers = encourages immaturity
66
What is Herlihy research on identifying atypical chromosome patterns and its prac apps?
87 males with Klinefelters = those who had been identified and treated from a young age had significant benefits compared to those diagnosed in adulthood
increased awareness is useful
continued research is likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnoses
67
How can research on atypical chromosome patters ignore individual differences?
everyone with the syndromes developes the same associated chromosomes
Mosaic syndromes
diagnosing or researching = researchers must consider that there are individual diffs and variations of the conds
not everyone experiences the same characteristics
68
What is mosaic Klinefelters?
the additional X chromosome only appears in some of their cells rather than all of them - reducing the severity of symptoms
69
What is mosaic Turners?
X chromosome is only missing from some body cells rather than all of them
70
Why do we study people with chromosomal abnormalities?
comparision with individuals with typical sex chromosome patterns
inferences can be made of the bio basis of differences found between atypical and typical chromosome individuals
71
What does the cognitive theory claim childs gender develops?
due to the changes in their thinking and understanding as they grow up as their gener schemas develop
72
What are the 2 cognitive explainations of gender?
Kohlberg's cognitive-developmental theory
Martin and Halvenson's gender schema theory
73
How does Kohlbergs theory say gender develops?
a childs understanding of gender develops with age, alongside their intellectual development as the child matures,
understanding of gender is a result of a childs active structuring of their own experiences
74
What are the 3 stages of Kolhberg's theory?
1. gender identity
2. gender stability
3. gender constancy
75
What is the gender identity stage of kohlberg's theory?
they can identify genders and label themselves and others
basic sense of understanding
not clear if gender is fixed or can change or in diff situations
rely on physical cues and get confused by these
76
What did Piaget call the gender identity stage of Kohlbergs theory?
pre-operational stage = children are lacking in internal logic
77
What age is gender identiy stage?
from 2yrs
78
What is the gender stability stage of kohlburgs theory?
knows their own gender is permenant and irreversible over time
rely on physical cues
unsure if others genders are fixed for others and in different situations
egocentric
79
What did Piaget mean when he said children in gender stability are egocentric?
they are unable to see things from anothers POV
80
What age is gender stability stage?
4-5 years
81
What is gender constancy stage of kohlbergs theory?
realises gender is contant in different situations
not confused by appearance
gender is fixed completely
motivated to learn = same-sex models to become fully gendered
82
What did Kohlberg state on gender constancy and same-sex models?
they imitate same-sex models because they consider it appropriate not because they are rewarded
assists with learning gender
83
What age is gender constancy?
6 years old
84
What study supports Kohlbergs theory?
Slaby and Frey
85
What was Slaby and Freys study on same-sex models and Kohlbergs theory?
split screen images of males and females perfroming the same task
younger children = spent same time looking at either side
older (gender constancy) = more time looking at the same sex model
supports kohlberg
86
What study goes against Kohlbergs study?
Bussey and Bandura
87
What did Bandura and Bussey say on Kohlbergs ages of stages?
gender appropriate behaviour starts earlier
4 year olds felt good about playing with gender appropirate toys
and felt bad playing with opposite gender toys
88
How does Kohlbergs theory lack temporal validity?
children have more openess about gender diff in media now compared to 60s
better understanding of gender constancy at a younger age
89
What is a methological issue with Kohlbergs theory?
based on interviewing children = exaggerage, poor verbal ability unable to explain, easily influenced, lie
90
Who developed the gender schema theory?
Martin and Halverson
91
What happens at 2 according to GST?
gender identity, aware of their own gender and start to look for information to learn about their gender
92
What happens at 3 according to GST?
develop gender schemas by actively seeking out appropriate behaviours for their own gender
93
What happens at 4-6 according to GST?
rigid concept of own gender developed
very stereotypical and fixed
little understanding of schemas for opposite sex
they positivly evaluate their own gender and negatively evaluate the opposite group to enhance self-esteem
94
Why do children at 4-6 know little about the opposite gender?
they reject info about the opposite gender because it is irrelvant to their learning of their gender
95
what happens at 8-10 according to the GST?
they have a more sophisticated understanding of the opposite gender and their shcemas become more flexible
96
What studies support the gender schema theory?
Martin and Halverson study
Bussey and Bandura
97
What was Martin and Halverson's study on GST and gender stereotypes?
showed children pics of men and women in stereotypical or counter-stereotypical roles and asked the children to describe what they saw
schemas distorted memories and describe counter-stereotyped jobs as the stereotypical gender
rigid stereotypes of gender supported
98
How does the GST have face-validity?
Martin and Halverson study also helps shows why children have very stereotypes beliefs towards gender despite attempts by parents to challenge it
99
How is the GST challenged by the learning theory?
SLT = parental influence and rewards/punishments children recieve for certain behaviours are important in gender development
GST does not take enough account of these factors
100
How does research on Bio development and SLT of gender disprove the GST?
there is evidence for gender-types preferences before the age of 3 when schemas develop
bio = innate
SLT = learning from parents from a young age
101
How did Freud explain gender differences?
babies are born with little psychological gender differences
this continues until the phallic stage
102
What is the oedipus and electra complex?
unconscious emotional conflicts and their resolution leads to children learning sex-role behaviours through identification with the same sex parent
103
How did Freud explain boys develop their gender identity by the oedipus complex?
3 yrs old - desire to be intimate with their mother, possessive of her
rival their father creates guilt, hostility and fear of castration
to avoid castration anxiety = avoid desire for mum and identify with dad
identification = adopts gender related traits like his father
internalisation = develops strong masc gender identity to be like dad - stong superego and conscience
104
How did Freud explain girls develop their gender identity by the electra complex?
girls develop strong feelings for father - want to be centre of his life
they want the privilages society grants men = penis envy
blame mothers for castration making them female = leads to anger, guilt and fear of the loss of their mothers love
to avoid loosing mothers love = identify with their mother
take on feminine gender role by internalisation
105
What did Freud state would happen if children had same sex parents?
something traumatic will happen to them and will affect their gender identity
106
Why did Freud state females have less clear cut gender roles and weaker morality?
the electra complex is less powerful experience as it did not involve castration anxiety but fear for the loss of the mothers love
107
How is freuds research on gender socially sensitive?
claims that women are inferior to men as they have weaker moralities
108
What study supports freuds explaination of gender?
Little Hans
109
How does Little Hans support Freuds theory on gender?
he developed fear of horses by associating it with the fear of castration from his mother and father
his mother would tell him to stop touching it or she will chop it off
the fear of horses was resolved when Hans identified with his father and no longer feared castration
110
What are the issues with the Little Hans case?
subjective - Freuds interpretation
lack of replicability - case study = not generalisable
freud never met little hans - through communicating with his father who was aware of the oedipus complex = secondary data
111
What is the similarity with the psychodynamic theory of gender and the 2 cognitive explainations?
they all suggest that gender roles are learned by identification with same sex models = increased confidence in all theories
112
What 3 studies go against freuds theory of gender?
Geen
strict fathers
feminist psychologists
113
Why did freud say children need to be brought up with 2 opposite sex parents?
so the child is able to manage the Oedipus and electra complexes effectively = being raised in a non-nuclear (gay/single parent) family wouldhad adverse effects on the childs gender development
114
What was Geen's study on transgender/ gay families and childs gender development?
37 children raised by gay/ transgender parents
only 1 child had gender identity that was non-typical
Contradicts Freud = not valid
115
What is the issue with Freuds theory of gender with strict fathers and boys?
theory states that identification with the boys father is based on their fear - so those with harsher fathers should have a stronger sense of gender identity
the opposite is true
boys with mrore liberal fathers had a more secure masculine identities
116
What did feminist psychologists say on freuds idea of penis envy?
reflects patriarchal society freud lived in = temporal validity
males experience womb evny - more powerful emotion = ability to sustain and nurture life to be certain it is their own child
penis envy is not plausible
gender bias and alpha bias = exaggerating differences b/w genders
117
What are the general issues with the psychodynamic approach?
no eividence for the electra complex - cannot be falsified
unconscious thoughts cannot be directy measured - unfalsifiable and no scientific evidence
psychic determinism - ignores free will, today people can choose their gender = temporal validity
118
Who developed the social learning theory of gender development?
Bandura
119
How is all gender role behaviour learned according to bandura?
social learning - observing role models and imitating
within a social context
120
How does a child learn gender appropriate behaviour by social learning?
observe role model = same-sex parent
the model may be rewarded for gender appropriate behaviour so the child may be motivated to imitate that behaviour = vicarious reinforement
mediational processes involved
121
What 2 studies support the social learning theory of gender development?
Smith and LLoyd
Perry and Bussey
122
How does smith and lloyds study support SLT in gender?
boys and girls are treated very differently from birth
gender appropriate behaviour is encouraged by parents at an early age
123
What was Perry and bussey's study supporting SLT of imitation of models in gender?
8 and 9 year old children
watched a film of male and female adults choosing pairs of items
children were shown a slide of the pairs of items and were asked to choose 1 item
when men chose 1 type of item in the film = boys picked this particular item
and same with women and girls
likely to imitate same sex models when behaviour b/w sexes is different = children notice differences in frequency of behaviours performed by males and females
124
What 2 studies go against SLT on gender?
Martin et al and David Reimer
125
What was Martin et al study disproving imitation of SLT in gender?
pre-school boys were more influences by labels identifying boys toys or girls toys than seeing other girls or boys playing with these toys
direct instructtion may be more important than modelling in pre-school children
126
How does the case of David Reimer disprove SLT in gender?
the role of nurture may be less powerful than biology and hormones in determining gender development
he returned back to a male after being raised as girl all through life
127
How does cultural norms support SLT as an explaination for gender development?
there is less clear distinction today between acceptable gender role behaviours
it is now more acceptable to be androgynous despite no changes to our biology or hormones
due to change in cultural norms
128
What are the 3 types of role models?
parents
peers
someone powerful
129
How does culture influence gender roles? (full A01 SLT applied)
female child pays attention and observes her mother always being the one to do domestic chores
also observes grandmother and aunties doing the same
she identifies with theses women as they are the same sex and culture
feels this is what females do in her culture
remembers = retention
production and imitation
her mother rewards her by saying she is helpful
130
What study supports the influence of culture on gender roles?
Mead
131
What was mead's tribal study on gender roles and cultures?
3 tribes in New Guinea that had different cultures
1. men and women had more feminine qualities = gentle and co-operative
2. both sexes were aggressive and hostile = masc
3. women were dominant, men were passive and emotionally dependent
Mead = differences between the tribes must be due to differen cultures that had developed and not biological differences
132
What is the metholodgical issue with Mead's tribal study?
demanc characteristics = they did not accurately tell her what happend in their tribes but confirmed what they felt she wanted to hear
meads underestimated how widespread gender stereotypes behaviour is = suggested less of a role of the influence of culture
133
What study suggests cultural differences in gender roles?
Malinowski
134
What was malinowski's study on cultural differences on gender roles?
documented sexual behaviour of a tribe in New Guinea
found that women were sometimes highly sexually aggressive
they would gang up and capture and rape men from other tribes brutally
women would boast about this and considered it to enhance their tribes reputation
135
What was David Buss's study on cultural similarity on gender roles?
survey in 37 countries where they had to rate importance of characteristics in a potential partner
males rated good looks and youth = good indicator of health and ability to be a mother
women rated financial prospects and dependablity
same preferences across different cultures
136
What study shows cultural similarities in gender roles?
David buss
137
How does David buss study support nature?
people show the same preference for partners despite cultures
biology influences innate choices for a potential partner = evolutionary factors
138
What study goes against cultural differences in gender roles?
Eagly and wood
139
What did Eagly and Wood state about physical gender differences?
different gender roles result in physical differences between men and women
gender roles are not entirely defined by culture but rather biological differences and what the culture expects of each sex
140
How does media influence gender roles? (full SLT A01)
children are exposed to stereotypical models in the media = on TV, social media or online videos
female child pays attention and observes how other girls (role models) on TV adverts play with dolls
identifies = same sex and age
feels that girls are meant to play with dolls
remebers the toys they played with and feels she should do this too
imitates by playing with dolls
mother rewards her by buying more accessories for her dolls
141
How are men protrayed in media?
ambitious, independant
142
How are women presented in media?
dependant and advice seekers
143
What 3 studies support the influence of media on gender roles?
McGhee and Frueh
Good
Williams
144
What did McGhee and Frueh find on Tv's influence on gender roles in children?
children who watched more than 25 hrs a week were more likely to hold stereotypical ideas of gender
than children who watched 10hrs or less a week
145
What is the issue with McGhee and Frueh study?
not a controlled lab = correlation
no C and E
high TV viewers may have come from families with traditional views on gender
other factors involved
146
What was Good's study on science and high school children and gender?
81 high school students
traditional gender gap b/w science achievment in girls and boys reversed when the students were tested on content including only female scientists
most text-books show predominately male scientists = may be the reason boys do better in science
147
What is the practical application of Good's study on science textbooks?
can be used to reverse the effects of seeing gender stereotypical models to aid academic perfromance
148
What is a genderal issue with research on media influences of gender?
it is difficult to know the length of time of exposure to media and the type of media children are exposed to
cannot form conclusions
149
What was William's study on media influences (TV) on children with no TV exposure?
children from canada with no TV exposure
introduced TV and the childrens views became more sex-typed after Tv exposure
150
What is gender dysphoria?
a condition where individuals experience a mismatch between their biological sex and the sex they fell they are
151
How do people with GD feel?
they feel like they are in the wrong body
they identify with the opposite sex
will identify as transgender = have gender reassignment surgery
152
What is an ethical implication of gender reassignment surgery?
you have to be 18 to have it in England
having treatment early may relieve distress for people and would prevent puberty
but it cannot be reversed - may be a phase and regret transition later in life
153
What are the 2 biological theories of GD?
Brain sex theory
genes
154
What is the Brain sex theory?
suggests that dysphoria is caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with a person's biological sex
focuses on areas of the brain that are dimorphic = different in males and females
155
What part of the brain does the Brain sex theory cause GD?
the BSTc - it is assumed to be fully developed at 5
40% larger in males
associated with emotional responses and male sexual behaviour in rats
156
What was found on the BSTc in transgender females by post-mortems?
6 male-to-females who had recieved feminising hormone treatments
the BSTc was a similar size to heterosexual women
further research found = the 6 ppls had similar number of neurons in the BSTc to heterosexual women
157
What is an issue with the PM research on GD? (hormones)
not clear if differences are from birth or a result of hormone treatments or from years acting as a female
the differences found in the BSTc may be due to plasticity and the consequence of hormone treatment
158
What study goes against the brain sex theory?
Pol et al
159
What did Pol et al find on MRI of transgender ppl taking hormones and the BSTc?
changes in the brain were recorded while undegoing hormone treatment
significant changes in the BSTc
160
What is the issue with using PM to study the BSTc?
cannot see the changes of the brain while alive
161
What study supports the Brain sex theory?
Rametti et al
162
What did Rametti et al find on white matter to support the Brain sex Theory?
there are reginol differences in the proportion of white matter in males and females
transgender ppls before hormone treatment = the amount and distribution of while matter corresponde to the gender they identified with
163
What is the genetic explaination of GD?
an abnormal androgen receptor gene which reduces the action of testosterone
164
What type of study supports genetic explainations of GD?
twin studies
165
What twin study supports genetic explainations of GD?
Heylens et al
166
What did Heylens find on twins and GD?
meta analysis = at least 1 twin had GD
Mz = 39% concordance rate
Dz = 0%
167
What are the issues with twin studies on GD?
identical twins treated equally = result of nurture
no clear conclusions
influence from the other twin with GD
not 100% for Mz twins who are 100% genetically the same
twins are rare but so is GD = small samples and lacks generalisability
168
Outline the biological explaination for gender dysphoria
over/ under exposure to androgens in the womb and consequent masculinisation or feminisation
neurobiological abnormality resulting from genes
169
How does social explainations say GD is developed?
GD is a condition learned through socialisation
170
What are the 2 social explainations of GD?
social constructionism and psychodynamic theory
171
What is social constructionism? A01
argues that gender identity does not refelct underlying biological differences between people
argues that these concepts are invented by societies
172
What does social constructionism say GD is caused by?
society forces people to be a man or a woman and they must pick a side and act accordingly
it arises when 2 choices are forced upon people
173
What study supports social constructionism?
Samoa societies
174
How does Samoa societies support social constructionism for GD?
not all cultures have 2 genders
biological males adopt traditional women gender roles and carry out the domestic work
they may sleep with men or women and are not considered as gay
175
What is it about people living in India, pakistan and Bangladesh supports social constructionism of GD?
many people live as transgender
in india = they are recognised as having legal identities on passports
176
Who developed the psychodynamic approach to GD?
Ovesey and Person
177
What is the freudian explaination of GD development?
results from an unresolved Oedipus complex
mother and son are separated causing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity is established
the boy fantasises that mum is still around to relieve anxiety
the child 'becomes the mother' = identifies with mum and develops feminine characteristics
178
What 2 studies support the psychoanalytic theory of GD?
zucker et al
Stoller
179
What was Zucker at al study and boys relationship with mothers?
115 boys with gender identity concerns and relationship w/ their mothers
some were later diagnosed with GD
those diagnosed also more likely to have seperation anxiety disorder
180
What was Stoller's study on interviewing GD males?
interviewed males with GD
they displayed overly close relationships with their mothers = lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity
181
What are the issues with all research supporting the psychodynamic explaination of GD?
based on interpretation of researcher = subjective
unfalsifiable - unconscious
relys on self report
inadequate theory = no explaination for GD F->M transgender individuals
182
What is a practical app of research on GD?
treatment can reduce the stress by mismatch of sex and gender - can be treated at a younger age is a debate
therapies develop for children
183
What was found when girls 2-3yrs old referred to gender identity clinic were reviewed again at 7-18 yrs?
88% showed GD as children
only 12% still showed GD at 7-18yrs
