Aggression Flashcards
(129 cards)
1
Q
What are the neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression?
A
The neural mechanisms in aggression are the limbic system and serotonin.
The hormonal mechanisms are testosterone and progesterone.
2
Q
What is proactive aggression?
A
Proactive aggression is…
- Cold blooded
- A planned and organised method of getting what you want
- Motivated by the anticipation of reward, which makes it goal-directed
- Designed to achieve an objective beyond physical violence (robbery)
3
Q
What is reactive aggression?
A
Reactive aggression is…
- Hot blooded
- Angry and impulsive
- Accompanied by physiological arousal (increase in heart rate)
- Likely to be a response to a perceived threat or provocation, which is often liked with high emotional arousal, anxiety and anger (a child punching their peer after being teased)
4
Q
Why are psychologists interested in reactive aggression?
A
It is likely to be responsible for a large proportion of social problems which can lead to damage so it is relevant.
5
Q
What is the limbic system?
A
It is a subcortical structure in the brain made up of the hypothalamus, amygdala and parts of the hippocampus.
6
Q
What is the role of the limbic system in aggression?
A
Papez and Maclean argue the limbic system is linked to the regulation of emotional behaviours, including aggression.
7
Q
What is the role of the amygdala in aggression?
A
The reactivity of the amygdala, is an important predictor of aggressive behaviour, so the more responsive the amygdala the more aggressive a person is.
It has a key role in how mammals asses and respond to environmental threats.
8
Q
What is a study to support the role of the amygdala?
A
In 2011, Gospic et al got some participants to be subjected to mild provocations. When participants reacted aggressively fMRI scan showed a fast and heightened response by the amygdala. A benzodiazepine drug, which reduces arousal of the autonomic nervous system, was taken before the provocation which led to two effects:
- decreased activity of the amygdala
- halved the number of rejections, so it reduced aggression
This illustrates the role of the amygdala.
9
Q
What is serotonin?
A
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that has widespread inhibitory effects in the brain so it slows down and calms neuronal activity.
10
Q
What is the role of serotonin in aggression?
A
According to Denson et al, the normal levels of serotonin in the orbitofrontal cortex are linked with the reduced firing of neurons, which is associated with greater behavioural self control. This is because high levels of serotonin leads to higher levels of control.
Likewise, decreased levels of serotonin disrupts this mechanism, which reduces self control and therefore it leads to an increase in impulsive behaviour including aggression.
11
Q
What is one study to support the role of serotonin in aggression?
A
Virkkunen et al, compared levels of a serotonin breakdown product, which is a metabolite called 5-HIAA, in the cerebrospinal fluid of violent impulsive and violent non-impulsive offenders. It was found that the levels were significantly lower in the impulsive offenders.
12
Q
What is a strength of serotonin in aggression?
A
P - One strength of the serotonin explanation is research into the effects of drugs.
E - Drugs like paroxetine increase serotonin and have been found to reduce levels of aggressive behaviours.
E - Berman et al gave participants either a placebo or paroxetine. The participants then took part in a lab-based game which involved giving and receiving electric shocks in response to provocation (insults)
The paroxetine group consistently gave fewer and less intense shocks than the placebo group.
L - Therefore, the study gives evidence of a causal link between serotonin function and aggression.
13
Q
What is a limitation of the limbic system in aggression?
A
P - One limitation of the limbic explanation is more recent research which shows that non-limbic brain structures are also involved in aggression.
E - Limbic structures like the amygdala function together with the orbitofrontal cortex which controls impulsiveness and self control, however it is not apart of the limbic system.
The OFC is involved in impulse regulation and inhibition of aggressive behaviour.
According to Coccaro et al, OFC activity is reduced in those psychiatric disorders that feature aggression such as bipolar,
E - This reduced activity disrupts the OFC’s impulse-control function which causes aggressive behaviour.
L - This shows that the neural regulation of aggression is more complex than theories focusing on the amygdala suggest.
14
Q
Evaluation XTRA - Neural mechanisms
A
P- One limitation of the neural explanation of aggression is that it ignores social and environmental factors.
E - Gospic et al’s study of the amygdala reactivity and benzodiazepines found a link between heightened reactivity of the amygdala and higher levels of aggression.
E - However, Gospic et al also stated that the role of the amygdala is to respond to environmental threats.
L - This means that the activity of the amygdala is determined by factors in the environment, which the theory fails to account for.
15
Q
What is testosterone?
A
Testosterone is the male sex hormone, which is an androgen (group of hormones) responsible for development of masculine features. It is produced in the testes in men and in the ovaries in women (in women its produced in smaller amounts).
It is associated with aggressiveness.
16
Q
What is the role of testosterone in aggression?
A
Testosterone has a role in regulating social behaviour through its influence on certain areas of the brain that are implicated in aggression, so it directly impacts aggression.
Many people have observed that men are generally more aggressive than women.
According to Daly and Wilson, men become more aggressive towards other men at a time in development, which is after 20 years old, when testosterone levels are the highest.
This leads to high male vs male aggression because they are seen as threats.
17
Q
What is a study that supports the role of testosterone in aggression?
A
Glammanco et al did castration studies on animals, which shows that removing the testes reduces aggression in the males of many species. However, giving injections of testosterone to the same animals restores aggressive behaviour. This shows cause and effect.
18
Q
What is another study to support the role of testosterone in aggression?
A
Dolan et al found evidence for similar associations in humans from studies of prison populations.
They found a positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggressive behaviours in a sample of 60 male offenders who are in UK maximum security hospitals. These men mostly had personality disorders, like psychopathy, and histories of impulsively violent behaviour.
19
Q
What is a progesterone?
A
A female ovarian hormone.
20
Q
What is the role of progesterone in aggression?
A
There is some evidence that progesterone plays an important role in aggression in women.
Levels of progesterone vary during the ovulation cycle and are lowest during and just after menstruation.
21
Q
What is a study to support the role of progesterone in aggression?
A
Ziomkiewicz et al found a negative correlation between progesterone levels and self-reported aggression.
This suggests that low levels of progesterone are linked to increased aggression in women.
22
Q
What is a strength of the hormonal mechanisms in aggression?
A
P - One strength of the hormonal explanation is support from reserach with non-human animals.
E - Glammanco et al’s review of studies confirms the role of testosterone.
For example, in male rhesus macaque monkeys there is an increase in both testosterone levels and aggressive behaviour during the mating season.
E - In rats castration reduces testosterone and mouse killing behaviour
Injecting female rats with testosterone increases mouse-killing
L - These findings show the role of testosterone in a range of animal species.
23
Q
What is a limitation of the hormonal mechanisms in aggression?
A
P - One limitation is mixed evidence of the link between testosterone and aggression in humans.
E - Carre and Mehta developed a dual-hormone hypothesis to explain why. They claim that high levels of testosterone lead to aggressive behaviour but only when levels of cortisol, which deals with stress, are low. When cortisol is high, testosterone’s influence on aggression is blocked.
E - The hormone cortisol plays a central role in the body’s response to chronic stress. This suggests that it is an incomplete explanation.
L - Therefore the combined activity of testosterone and cortisol may be a better predictor of aggression than either hormone alone.
24
Q
EVALUATION XTRA
A
25
What are genes?
Genes are inherited and are transmitted from parents to their offspring. Genes consist of DNA strands.
DNA produces instructions from general physical features of an organism, this includes eye colour and height. In addition, it affects more specific physical features including neurotransmitter levels and brain structure.
Genes can also impact psychological features like intelligence and mental disorders.
26
Why do we use twin studies in aggression?
Several twin studies suggest that heritability (genetic factors) account for 50% of variance in aggressive behaviour.
MZ twins share 100% of their genes but DZ twins share only 50% which is the same as normal siblings. This allows us to see greater similarities in aggressive behaviour between MZ twins if aggression is mostly influenced by genetic factors. This is because MZ and DZ twins are raised in the same environment but MZ twins have a greater degree of genetic similarity.
27
What study supports the use of twin studies in aggression?
Coccaro et al studied men who were either mono-zygotic or dizygotic twins. For aggressive behaviour which is defined as direct physical assault, researchers found a concordance rate of 50% for MZ and 19% for DZ twins. When looking at verbal aggression they found a 28% concordance rate for MZ twins and a 7% rate for DZ twins. This suggests that genetic factors account for 50% of variance in aggressive behaviour.
28
Why do we use adoption studies in aggression?
Similarities in aggressive behaviour between an adopted child and their biological parents suggest that genetic influences are operating. Therefore, similarities between an adopted child and their adoptive parents suggest that environmental influences are operating.
29
What study supports the use of adoption studies in aggression?
Rhee and Waldman carried out a meta-analysis of adoption studies of direct aggression and anti-social behaviour, which is a prominent feature in aggressive behaviour.
They found that genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression, which is in line with the figures from the twin studies.
30
What is the MAOA gene and the MAO-A enzyme?
The MAOA gene controls the production of an enzyme called monoamine oxidase A, which is in the brain.
MAO-A regulates and breaks down the neurotransmitter serotonin, which is a monoamine. Serotonin plays an important role in impulsive aggression.
31
What is a supporting study of the MAOA-L gene in aggression and provides it with a nickname?
Lee and Chambers nicknamed the MAOA gene the 'warrior gene' due to research which shows that the MAOA-L variant was possessed by 56% of New Zealand Maori men, in comparison to 34% of Caucasians.
Historically, the Maori people have a reputation for being ferocious warriors, hence the nickname.
32
What is the MAOA-L gene?
Genes come in different variants which can be high and low.
The low activity varaiant of the MAOA gene is MAOA-L, which results in low activity of the MAO-A enzyme, so it causes a deficiency. This means serotonin cannot be broken down so there are high levels of serotonin, which has caused MAOA-L to be linked to aggressive behaviour.
33
What is further supporting evidence of the MAOA-L gene?
Brunner et al further cemented the link between the MAOA-L gene and aggression. This was done in his study of 28 men from a large Dutch family who were repeatedly involved in impulsively aggressive violent criminal behaviours such as rape, attempted murder and physical assault. These men had abnormally low levels of the enzyme MAO-A, as well as the MAOA-L gene variant, which shows the link between low levels of the variant and aggression.
This research has caused the gene to sometimes be referred to as 'Brunner syndrome'
34
How do genes interact with the environment in aggression?
Genes are crucial but don't function in isolation.
It appears that the MAOA-L gene activity is only related to adult aggression when combined with an early traumatic life experience.
35
What study supports the interaction of genes and the environment in aggression?
Frazzetto et al found an association between higher levels of antisocial aggression and the MAOA-L gene variant in men. However, this was only the case in those who had experienced significant trauma such as sexual or physical abuse in the first 15 years of life.
Those who had not experienced trauma did not have high levels of aggression as adults, even if they possessed the MAOA-L variant. This shows strong evidence of a gene-environment interaction, which is known as the diathesis stress model.
36
What is a strength of genes in aggression?
P - One strength is support for the role of the MAOA gene in aggression.
E - Research shows that the low activity variant of the MAOA gene is linked to greater aggression.
Mertins et al found that the opposite is also true.
E - Men with low-activity and high-activity variants of the MAOA gene took part in a money-distributing game.
Men with the high-activity (MAOA-H) were more co-operative and made fewer aggressive moves than the low-activity participants.
L -This supports the relationship between MAOA-L gene activity and aggression.
37
What is the counterpoint to the reserach support for the role of genes in aggression?
P - The study by Mertins et al showed that non-genetic factors are crucial.
E - They found that even participants with MAOA-L behaved co-cooperatively rather than aggressively when they were made aware of others who were being co-operative (giving money away)
E - Knowledge of a social norm partly determined how aggressive or co-operative MAOA-L participants were.
L - Therefore, genes are influenced by environmental factors and do not act alone, which provides support for the internationalist theory.
38
What is a limitation of genes in aggression?
P - One limitation of the MAOA serotonin aggression link is that the precise mechanism is unclear.
E - Research by Virkkunen et al, linked aggression with low levels of serotonin. However, the MAOA-L gene causes low activity of the MAO-A enzyme which should lead to higher serotonin. This is because the MAOA gene should deactivate serotonin so the low activity enzyme will not break down serotonin, which leads to higher levels.
E - In people with the MAOA-L variant it may be more accurate to say that their serotonin levels are disrupted rather than they are lower or higher than normal.
L - This shows that the relationship between the MAOA gene, serotonin and aggression is not fully understood yet.
39
What is another limitation of genes in aggression?
P - Another limitation of the genetic approach is that twin studies may lack validity.
E - In every pair of twins, both individuals share an environment as each other as they are raised together. However, DZ twins may not share their environment to the same extent MZ twins share theirs. We assume they do and this is called equal environments assumption.
E - The assumption may be wrong because one aspect of the environment is the way the twins are treaded by others. This is because the aggressive behaviour of MZ twins may be reinforced more equally than DZ’s. This means the concordance rate is inflated.
L - This means that the concordance rates are inflated and genetic influences in aggression may not be as great as twin studies suggest.
40
EVALUATION XTRA
41
What is ethology?
The study of animal behaviour in natural settings.
42
What does the ethological explanation seek to understand?
It seeks to understand the innate behaviour of animals and humans in their natural environment.
43
What is aggression according to Lorenz?
Lorenz, the founder of ethology, defined aggression as...
The fighting instinct in beast and man which is directed against members of the same species.
44
How does ethology link to aggression?
Ethologists study aggression in animals and apply that behaviour in humans. As they believe animal behaviour
45
What are the two key elements of the ethological approach?
- Aggression is instinctive and innate. Therefore, it occurs in all members of a species without the need for learning.
- It's adaptive and mostly genetically determined.
46
Explain one adaptive trait of aggression
- It reduces competitive pressure
This is because a defeated animal that is rarely killed, but rather is forced to establish territory elsewhere.
This means that members of a species are spread out over a wider area so they would discover resources, such as food, in different places.
Therefore, there is reduced competition pressure and the possibility of starvation which allows a decrease in extinction.
47
Explain another adaptive trait of aggression
It helps to establish dominance hierarchies.
An example of this is shown in male chimpanzees who use aggression to climb their troops social hierarchy. The dominance they have gives them special status, such as first access to food and mating rights over females.
48
How is establishing dominance hierarchies from aggression established in humans?
Pettit et al studied groups of young children and observed how aggression played an important role in the development of dominance hierarchies.
This is adaptive and naturally selected as dominance over others brings benefits.
49
What is a ritual?
A ritual is a series of behaviours carried out in a set order.
50
What is ritualistic aggression?
An example of aggression which is adaptive(aggression)
51
What are ritualistic signals according to Lorenz?
MS BEGUM
52
What are appeasement displays?
They indicate acceptance of defeat and inhibit further aggressive behaviour preventing any damage to the loser.
Lorenz pointed out that appeasement displays often end intra-species aggressive confrontations.
An example of this is a wolf exposing its jugular vein to the victor as a display of submission.
53
irm
54
55
fap
56
57
58
tinbergen
59
findings
60
What is an advantage of the ethological explanation of aggression?
P - One strength is support from research related to genetics and evolution.
E - There is a lot of evidence for the genetic basis for aggression. In Brunner et al’s study, it showed that one gene, the MAOA-L gene, is closely linked with aggressive behaviour in humans.
E - Twin and adoption studies also showed that there is a significant genetic component to aggression in humans.
These lines of research point towards an innate basis to aggressive behaviour.
L - This suggests the ethological approach is correct in claiming that aggression is genetically determined, heritable and adaptive.
61
What is a counterpoint to the research support for genetics in the ethological explanation?
P - However, aggressive behaviour differs from one culture to another and it sometimes differs within the same country.
E - Nisbett found that one type of homocide, the result of reactive aggression, was more common amongst white men in the southern United States than in the northern states.
Reactive aggression is a response to threats from someone else. He concluded that the difference was caused by a “culture of honour” in the southern US. This culture is less prevalent in the north, so homocide rates are lower there.
E - So this kind of aggressive behaviour comes from a learned social norm rather than being innate.
L - Therefore culture can override innate predispositions, which is hard for the ethological theory to explain.
62
What is one limitation of the ethological approach?
P - One limitation is that aggression against members of the same species is not just ritualistic.
E - Jane Goodall observed a four year war where male chimps from one community killed all members of another group. They did this in a systematic way. One some occasions, a victim would be held down by rival chimps while others hit it in an attack lasting many minutes.
E - The violence continued even when victims offered appeasement signals. This means the signals didn’t inhibit the aggressive behaviour of the attackers as predicted by the ethological approach.
L - This challenged the ethological view that same-species aggression has evolved into a self-limiting and relatively harmless ritual.
63
What is another limitation of the ethological approach?
P - Another limitation is that Lorenz’s original view of FAPs is outdated.
E - Lorenz saw FAPs as innate and unchanging but psychologist Hunt pointed out that FAPs are actually greatly influenced by environmental factors and learning experiences.
E - An aggressive FAP is made up of several behaviours in a sequence. However, the duration of each behaviour in a sequence varies from one individual to another and even in the individual from one encounter to another. As they are modifiable many ethologists prefer the term ‘modal behaviour patterns’ to reflect this.
L - Therefore patterns of aggressive behaviour are much more flexible than Lorenz thought, especially in humans.
64
What is an extra limitation of the ethological approach?
P - Another limitation of the ethological approach is that it is deterministic.
E - Ethologists argue aggression is innate and mostly genetically determined. This implies that humans will inevitably be aggressive and fight each other and that once the aggression is triggered it follows an inevitable course which cannot be altered before completion.
E - However, other approaches in psychology, such as the cognitive approach, suggest that aggression is not inevitable because it is more under rational control than instinctive. This is because humans have the capability to think about their actions.
Also human behaviour is affected by learning experiences and can override innate predispositions which makes aggression far from inevitable.
L - Therefore aggression may have instinctive elements but in humans it is more strongly influenced by cognitive and social factors.
65
What is the evolutionary explanation?
An account of the changes in species over millions of years based on the idea of natural selection.
66
What is natural selection?
The theory that any behaviour which is beneficial, enhances survival and ultimately successful reproduction is perpetuated.
67
What does the evolutionary explanation focus on?
Human adaptive aggression and naturally selected aggressive behaviours.
68
What is the difference between adaptation and natural selection?
Adaptation is the characteristic of an organism, whereas natural selection is the process through which a favourable adaptation is passed on from a parent to its offspring.
69
What are some adaptive functions of aggression?
Buss and Duntley identified ...
Acquiring resources and Increasing status through dominance hierarchies which are ethological explanations.
Recent research shows defeating sexual rivals and retaining mates which are evolutionary explanations.
70
What is sexual jealousy?
Sexual jealousy is a major motivator of aggressive behaviour in males.
71
How does sexual jealousy occur?
It occurs because men can never be totally sure if they are the biological father of their child, unlike women.
This paternity uncertainty is a result of the threat of being a male of cuckoldry, which is when a man is raising offspring which is not his own.
72
Why would raising another man's child be maladaptive?
Any investment into offspring who doesn't share the genes of a man is a waste of his resources.
This is because it contributes to the survival of a rival's genes and leaves the 'father' with fewer resources to invest in his own future offspring.
73
What used to happen to men who avoided cuckoldry?
They were more reproductively successful so psychological mechanisms have evolved to increase anti-cuckoldry behaviours in males.
Sexual jealousy is more strongly experienced in males than females due to this.
74
What does sexual jealousy lead to?
It causes men to adopt strategies which allow them to retain their partner and prevent them from straying.
75
What are mate retention strategies?
Wilson and Daly identify several strategies to keep a partner loyal which involves aggression and even physical violence.
These involve direct guarding, negative inducements and physical violence.
76
What is direct guarding?
This involves male vigilance over a partner's behaviour.
It can include checking who they've been seeing, coming home early and keeping tabs on them.
77
What are negative inducements?
Issuing threats of dire consequences for infidelity.
- I'll kill myself if you leave me
78
What is physical violence?
Any intentional act causing injury or trauma to another person.
79
What is a study that shows physical violence as a mate retention strategy?
Wilson et al asked women to report mate retention in their partners. It was measured by the extent to which they agreed with statements like 'He insists on knowing who you are with and where you are at all times'
80
What were the findings of Wilson et als study on mate retention?
Women who mostly agreed with the statements were twice as likely to have experienced physical violence by their partners.
Of these women, 73% required medical attention and 53% said they feared for their lives.
This supports the view that mate retention strategies are linked to physical violence.
81
Why does bullying occur?
It occurs because of a power imbalance where a more powerful individual uses aggression deliberately and repeatedly against a weaker person.
It has traditionally been viewed as a maladaptive behaviour, which is a result of poor social skills or childhood abuse.
82
What does the evolutionary explanation state about bullying?
They state bullying is an adaptive strategy to increase chances of survival by promoting their own health and creating opportunities for reproduction.
83
What are the reasons for male bullying?
According to Volk et al it...
- is attractive to females.
- prevents threat from potential rivals.
- may benefit the bully's health.
84
How is male bullying attractive to females?
This is because the characteristics linked with bullying are attractive to females. This includes dominance, acquisition of resources and strength.
85
What is an advantage of bullying preventing threats from rivals?
Bullying behaviour would be naturally selected due to these men having greater reproductive success.
86
How does bullying protect a bully's health?
Sapolsky argues that adolescent boys who gain a reputation as tough are less likely to experience aggression as people avoid contact with them. This benefits their health as those at the top of a dominance hierarchy experience less stress.
87
What are the instances female bullying are likely to take place in?
In a relationship to control a partner.
According to Campbell, women use bullying behaviour to secure their partner's fidelity, which means they continue to provide resources to future offspring. Therefore the behaviour is naturally selected due to reproductive success.
88
What is a strength of the evolutionary explanation?
P - One strength is that the evolutionary explanation can explain why males and females differ in their uses of aggression.
E - Lots of research shows that there are gender differences in aggression. These can be due to socialisation but some can be explained in terms of adaptive strategies.
E - Campbell argues that it is not adaptive for a female with offspring to be physically aggressive because such behaviour would put her and her child's survival at risk.
Due to this a more adaptive strategy for females is verbal aggression to retain a partner who provides resources. This explains why women are likely to use verbal rather than physical aggression.
L - Therefore, such arguments can provide support for the evolutionary approach to explaining aggression.
89
What is another strength of the evolutionary explanation?
P - Another strength is that the evolutionary explanation can be used to reduce bullying.
E - One approach to reduce bullying is by addressing a bully's perceived deficiencies, this is based on the assumption people bully as they feel inferior.
However, there are several interventions based on this assumption and bullying is still prevalent.
E - Ellis et al suggest an alternative strategy based on the view that bullying is adaptive. They argue that 'meaningful-role' anti bullying interventions can increase the cost of bullying and the rewards of prosocial alternatives.
For example, this could be giving bullies roles and responsibilities in schools that provide an alternative source of status, such as school council.
L - Therefore viewing bullying as an adaptive behaviour may lead to more effective interventions.
90
What is a limitation of the evolutionary explanation?
P - One limitation is that there are cultural differences in aggressive behaviour.
E - This means the theory is not universal as there are some cultures where aggression is nearly non-existent.
E - The Kung-San people of western Botswana were studied by anthropologist, Elizabeth Thomas, who called them the 'harmless people'
She found that they had negative attitudes towards the use of aggression and aggressive behaviour is discouraged from childhood in both genders.
Those who do show aggressive behaviour have their status and reputation within the community diminished.
L - This shows that behaviour may not be adaptive as some cultures don't show aggression.
91
What is the conflicting evidence to cultural differences in the evolutionary explanation?
P - However, there is controversy on how harmless the Kung San people are.
E - Lee describes the homicide rate as surprisingly high for peaceful people. The contradiction in findings may be due to the observer only seeing what they expect aggression to be due to their bias.
L - These methodological issues mean observations by 'outsiders' may not be useful and could lack validity.
92
What is another limitation of the evolutionary approach?
P - Another limitation is that the evolutionary approach is biologically determinist.
E - We are aggressive because of adaptations that increased the survival chances of our ancestors and are beyond our control which means aggression is inevitable.
E - However, the humanistic approach argues aggression is due to free will. As well as cognitive factors allow us to think about consequences. This is supported by research into cultural differences.
L - Therefore, a balanced position is soft determinism. We may be predisposed to aggression by evolutionary influences but actual aggressive acts depend on other factors.
93
What is a social psychological explanation of aggression?
Any theory that argues aggression is the result of an interaction between an individual's characteristics, their biology, and features of the environment where behaviour occurs.
94
What are the social psychological explanations of aggression?
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
Social learning theory
De-individuation
95
What is the frustration aggression hypothesis?
Dollard et al formulated this.
It is a social psychological theory that states frustration always leads to aggression and aggression is always the result of frustration.
96
How does frustration lead to aggression?
1 - Aggression is a psychological drive which is similar to biological drives such as hunger.
2 - We experience frustration when our attempts to reach a goal are blocked by an external factor.
3 - This creates an aggressive drive, which leads to aggressive thoughts and behaviours.
4 - The outburst removes the negative emotion, this is called catharsis, which is a psychodynamic concept.
5 - The aggressive drive is satisfied and reduces the drive, making further aggression less likely.
97
What acronym helps remember the steps in frustration aggression?
1 - DON'T = Drive
2 - BE = Blocked Goal
3 - AGGRESSIVE = Aggressive Behaviour
4 - CAUSE = Catharsis
5 - FIGHTING AIN'T LENG = Further aggression less likely
98
What study investigates the impact of frustration on aggression?
Geen carried out a study on frustration-aggression.
Male university students completed a jigsaw puzzle and their level of frustration was manipulated in one of three ways.
- For some, it was impossible to solve
- For some, they ran out of time because another student, who was a confederate, kept interfering
- For some, the confederate insulted them as they failed to solve the puzzle
All participants later had the opportunity to give the confederate electric shocks.
99
What were the findings of Geen's research on frustration-aggression?
The insulted group gave the strongest shocks on average, then the interfered group and then the impossible task participants.
All three groups selected more intense shocks than a non-frustrated control group.
100
Is aggression always directed at the source?
The frustration aggression hypothesis recognises that aggression is not always expressed directly against the source of frustration.
101
Why is aggression expressed indirectly at times?
The cause of frustration is...
- Abstract
- Too powerful and we risk punishment by being aggressive towards it
-Unavailable at the time
Due to this aggression is deflected onto an alternative which isn't abstract, is weaker and is available.
102
What is the weapon effect?
Berkowitz states that even if we are angry, we may not behave aggressively.
He believes frustration creates a readiness for aggression but the presence of aggressive cues in the environment make acting upon this much more likely.
Therefore cues are an additional element of the hypothesis.
103
What study supports the weapon effect?
Berkowitz and LePage demonstrated the weapon effect in a lab study.
Participants were given electric shocks by a confederate, which created anger and frustration. The participants later had the opportunity to give fake shocks to the confederate.
104
What were the results of Berkowitz's study?
The number of shocks was greater when there were two guns on a table compared to other conditions where there were no guns.
In condition 1 the average number of shocks was 6.07 whereas in condition 2 it was 4.67
This supports the idea that the presence of environmental cues stimulates aggression.
105
What is a strength of the frustration aggression hypothesis?
P - One strength is reserach support for a key concept of the frustration-aggression hypothesis.
E - Marcus-Newhall et al conducted a meta-analysis of 49 studies of displaced aggression. These studies investigated situations in which aggressive behaviour had to be directed against a 'human target' other than the one who caused the frustration. The researchers concluded that displaced aggression is a reliable phenomenon.
E - Frustrated participants who were provoked but unable to retaliate directly against the source of their frustration were significantly more likely to aggress against an innocent party than people who were not provoked.
L - This shows that frustration can lead to aggression against a weaker or more available target.
106
What is another strength of the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
P - Another strength of the frustration-aggression hypothesis is that there is real world application.
E - Berkowitz said 'the finger pulls the trigger' which means that 'open carry' in the US, where a gun is not concealed does not cause violence in itself. This is because individuals are responsible for their use of weapons, even when frustrated.
E - However, Berkowitz also said 'the trigger may be pulling the finger' in some cases. This means that gun violence depends on the presence of cues . This may be due to the weapon effect shown by Berkowitz and LePage.
L - This could have implications on gun control laws in the US.
107
What is a limitation of the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
P - One limitation is research showing that aggression may not be cathartic.
E - Bushman found that participants who vented their anger by repeatedly hitting a punching bag actually became more aggressive rather than less. Doing nothing was more effective at reducing aggression than venting.
E - Bushman argues that using venting to reduce anger is like using petrol to put out a fire. It doesn't work even for people who believe in its value. According to Bushman, 'The better people feel after venting, the more aggressive they are'
L - This shows that a central assumption of the frustration-aggression hypothesis may not be valid.
108
What is another limitation of the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
P - Another limitation is that the link between frustration and aggression is complex.
E - Earlier research into the frustration-aggression hypothesis shows that frustration doesn't always lead to aggression and that aggression can occur without frustration. This means the link between them isn't automatic.
E - Due to this, someone who feels frustrated may behave in many different ways. Instead of being aggressive they may be helpless or determined. Likewise, someone who behaves aggressively may do so for many reasons.
L - This suggests that the frustration aggression hypothesis is inadequate as it only explains how aggression arises in some situations but not all.
109
What is a counterpoint of the link between frustration and aggression being complex?
P - However, Berkowitz reformulated the initial hypothesis to take account of the link between frustration and aggression being complex.
E - His negative affect theory argued that frustration is just one of many aversive stimuli that create negative feelings, such as loneliness and jealousy
E - Aggressive behaviour is triggered by these negative feelings generally rather than by frustration specifically. The outcome of frustration can be a range of responses, only one of which is aggression. For example, you might feel frustrated at getting a poor grade but that leads to depression.
L - Therefore, frustration can form part of a wider explanation of what causes aggression.
110
What is social learning theory?
A way Bandura explains behaviour that includes learning through direct and indirect reinforcement whilst combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.
111
How does social learning theory link to aggression?
The social learning theory doesn't deny that biological factors play a role in how we acquire aggressive behaviour but rather everything about aggression is learned.
112
How can aggressive behaviour be learnt directly?
Bandura acknowledged that aggression can be learned directly, through mechanisms of operant conditioning which involves positive and negative reinforcement and punishment.
Direct reinforcement makes it more likely for someone to act aggressively.
113
How did Bandura believe aggressive behaviour is learnt in humans?
Bandura realised that aggressive behaviour often cannot be explained by such direct forms of learning especially in humans. Instead indirect mechanisms, such as observational learning, can account for most aggressive behaviours.
114
What are characteristics of a role model?
-Someone of the same gender
-Someone of the same age
-Someone of a higher status
115
What is observational learning?
Children and sometimes adults acquire specific aggressive behaviours through observing aggressive models. Whilst observing the behaviour of a model, children also observe the consequence of their aggressive behaviour.
116
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Vicarious reinforcement is when the models aggressive behaviour is rewarded which makes the child learn that aggression can be effective in getting what they want. This increases imitation of the violent behaviour
117
What is vicarious punishment?
Vicarious punishment is when a model's use of aggression to achieve a goal is punished. This makes an observing child less likely to imitate the behaviour.
118
What are cognitive conditions for learning?
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
119
What is attention?
A basic cognitive requirement where the observer must pay attention to the model's aggressive behaviour
120
What is retention?
The observer also needs to be able to remember the model's aggressive actions to from a symbolic mental representation of how the behaviour is performed
121
What is motor reproduction?
The observer must be able to transform the mental representation of the aggressive action into a physical action. This involves them assessing their ability to carry it out
122
What is motivation?
The observer needs a reason to carry out the aggressive behaviour, which will depend on their expectations that behaving aggressively in a situation will be rewarding
123
What is self efficacy?
Self efficacy is the extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal. Confidence in one's ability to be aggressive grows as they learn that aggression can bring rewards.
For example, a child who hits others to receive a toy learns they have the motor skills to reach their goal.
124
Give an example of self-efficacy
A child who hits others to receive a toy learns they have the motor skills to reach their goal.
This causes their self-efficacy to develop with each successful outcome. Since their aggressive behaviour was effective in the past they believe it will continue to be. Therefore, they learn aggression works and they are good at it.
125
What is Bandura's Bobo doll study?
In 1961, young children individually observed an adult model assaulting an inflatable plastic toy called a 'Bobo Doll'. The aggressive behaviour included throwing, kicking and hitting with a mallet. These physical acts were accompanied by verbal outbursts such as 'Sock him in the nose'
There was a short period where the children were not allowed to play with some attractive toys which led to frustration.
Once frustrated, they were taken to another room where there was a Bobo doll and some other toys.
126
What were the findings of Bandura's Bobo doll study?
Without being instructed to do so many children imitated the behaviour shown by the model.
In some cases, the closeness of imitation was remarkable and was virtually a direct copy of what the children had observed.
However, boys imitated physical aggression more than girls but there was no direct difference in imitating verbal aggression. Boys also were more likely than girls to imitate a same-sex model.
127
What happened to the other group in Bandura's study?
Another group of children who had observed an adult interacting non-aggressively with the doll, showed almost non-existent aggressive behaviour towards the bobo doll.
128
What is a strength of the social learning theory?
P - One strength of social learning is research supporting its explanation of aggression.
E - Poulin and Boivin found that aggressive boys aged between 9-12 years formed friendships with other aggressive boys. These friendships mutually reinforced each boy's aggressive behaviour through modelling.
E - For example, the boys would observe each other successfully using proactive aggression in order to get what they wanted from their peers which provided reinforcement. This means they were exposed frequently to models of physical aggression and its positive consequences.
The boys also gained reinforcement from the rewarding approval of the rest of the gang
L - These social learning processes made imitation of aggressive behaviour by the boys much more likely, as predicted by SLT.
129
