Approaches Flashcards
(163 cards)
1
Q
What is psychology?
A
The scientific study of the mind, behaviour and experience.
2
Q
How was psychology seen from the 17th-19th century?
A
Psychology was seen as a branch of the broader discipline of philosophy. It was known as experimental philosophy.
3
Q
What happened in 1879?
A
Wundt opened the first experimental psychology lab in Germany and emerges as its own distinct discipline.
Through Wundt’s work it began scientific psychology.
4
Q
What is introspection?
A
To analyse the nature of human consciousness and represent the first systematic attempt to study the mind under controlled conditions.
5
Q
What was Wundt’s objective and how did he carry it out?
A
One of Wundt’s main objectives was to try to develop theories about mental processes, such as language and perception.
Participants (him and his co-workers) were presented with different stimuli and had to reflect on their cognitive processes.
After they recorded their experiences of stimuli and divided their observations into either thoughts, images and sensations.
e.g - participants used a ticking metronome and would report observations.
6
Q
How did Wundt use standardised procedures?
A
The stimuli that Wundt experienced was presented in the same order and the same instructions were issued to all involved.
7
Q
What is structuralism?
A
Isolating the structure of consciousness.
8
Q
What is a strength of Wundt’s research?
A
P - One strength is that some of his methods were systematic and well controlled.
E - All introspections were recorded in the lab which ensured that possible extraneous variables were not a factor.
E - The procedures and instructions were carefully standardised so that all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way.
L - This suggests that Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to later scientific approaches in psychology, such as the behaviourist approach.
9
Q
What is another strength of Wundt’s research?
A
P - Another strength is that Wundt had a lot of contribution to psychology.
E - Wundt produced the first academic journal for psychological research. He is often referred to as the ‘father of psychology’ as his research set the foundation for approaches.
L - This is an advantage as it could justify the fact that the methods are unscientific.
10
Q
What is limitation of Wundt’s research?
A
P - One limitation is that some aspects of the research may be considered unscientific today.
E - Wundt relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes, but this data is subjective.
E - Also participants may have hidden some of their thoughts due to social desirability.
This makes it difficult to establish meaningful laws of behaviour from that data.
L - This suggests that some of Wundt’s early efforts to study the mind were flawed and not scientific.
11
Q
What happened in 1900s?
A
Freud created the psychodynamic approach.
12
Q
What happened in 1913?
A
Watson writes psychology as the behaviourist view and Skinner established it as the behaviourist approach.
13
Q
What happened in the 1950s?
A
Rogers and Maslow developed the humanistic approach and rejected the psychodynamic and behaviourist approach.
14
Q
What else happened in the 1950s?
A
The cognitive approach reintroduces the study of mental processes.
15
Q
What happened in the 1960s?
A
Bandura developed the social learning theory. It acts as a bridge between the cognitive and behaviourist approach.
16
Q
What happened from the 1980s?
A
The biological approach was established as the dominant scientific perspective in psychology due to advances in technology.
17
Q
What happened in the 21st century?
A
Cognitive neuroscience emerges as a distinct discipline which brings together the cognitive and biological approaches.
18
Q
What is science?
A
A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation to discover general laws.
19
Q
What do 1900s behaviourists believe about psychology as a science?
A
Behaviourists focused on behaviours that they could see and carefully controlled experiments.
This is because they believe a truly scientific psychology should only study things that can be observed objectively and measured.
20
Q
What does the 1950s cognitive approach believe about psychology as a science?
A
Cognitive psychologists linked the mind to a computer and tested their predictions about memory and attention using experiments.
21
Q
What does the 1980s biological approach believe about psychology as a science?
A
Researchers have taken advantage of advances in technology to investigate physiological processes. This is done through scanning techniques like fMRI’s and EEG’s.
22
Q
What are the features of science?
A
-Empirical evidence refers to data being collected through direct observation and argument.
-Objectivity refers to researchers being unbiased.
-Control refers to extraneous variables being controlled so cause and effect can be established.
-Hypothesis testing
-Replication refers to whether the method can be repeated and the same results will be obtained.
-Predictability refers to whether results can predict future behaviour.
23
Q
What is an advantage of psychology as a science?
A
P - One advantage is that modern psychology can claim to be scientific.
E - This is because psychology has the same aim as natural sciences, which are to understand, predict and control behaviour.
E- The learning approaches, cognitive and biological approaches rely on scientific methods. For example, they use lab studies.
L - This suggests that throughout the 20th century and beyond, psychology has established itself as a science.
24
Q
What is a limitation of psychology as a science?
A
P - One limitation is that not all approaches use scientific methods.
E - The humanistic approach rejects the scientific approach and focuses on individual experience which is subjective.
E - The psychodynamic approach uses case studies which are not very representative.
L - Therefore, a scientific approach to the study of human thought and experience may not always be possible.
25
What is the behaviourist approach?
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and measurable and in terms of learning.
26
Who rejected introspection?
Early behaviourists such as John B Watson rejected introspection as it involved too many vague concepts which are difficult to measure. Due to this behaviourists aimed to maintain more control and objectivity in their research so relied on lab-studies.
27
What do behaviourists believe?
All behaviour is learned.
A baby's mind is tabula rasa meaning a 'blank slate' when first born. It is written on with experience.
They suggest that the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species so they use animals as experimental subjects.
28
What are the two forms of learning?
Classical and Operant conditioning.
29
What is Classical Conditioning?
Learning by association.
It occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired. The neutral stimulus will eventually produce the same response that was first produced by the unconditioned stimulus alone.
UCS leads to an UCR
NS leads to NR
UCS+NS leads to UCR
CS leads to CR
30
Which study supports classical conditioning?
Pavlov's dogs demonstrated learning through association in 1927. In this study, he showed how dogs can be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell, which is rang at the same time they are given food. Due to this they began to associate the bell with food so salivated whenever they heard the bell.
31
What is operant conditioning?
Learning through consequence. Operant conditioning allows behaviours to be maintained. Behaviour is shaped by reinforcement and punishment.
32
What is reinforcement?
A consequence of a behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. It can be either positive or negative.
33
What is positive reinforcement?
It is the administration of a positive stimulus when a certain behaviour is performed.
- when a student hands in an essay so they get praised.
34
What is negative reinforcement?
This occurs when you avoid something unpleasant leading to a positive experience. So a behaviour that is performed in response to a negative stimulus with expectations that the negative stimulus will be removed.
The avoidance of something unpleasant is the negative reinforcement.
- when a student hands in an essay so they don't get told off.
35
What is punishment?
An unpleasant consequence of a behaviour.
- getting detention for not doing an essay.
Punishment decreases the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated.
To avoid this would be negative reinforcement.
36
What does Skinner say about learning?
It is an active process where humans and animals operate.
37
What study supports operant conditioning?
Skinners Box.
He conducted an experiment with rats, where everytime they activated a lever within the box it was rewarded with a food pelet. (positive reinforcement) which causes the behaviour to be repeated.
In another condition, Skinner showed how rats/pigeons can be conditioned to perform the same behaviour to avoid an electric shock. This means they pulled the lever to avoid being shocked (negative reinforcement)
38
What is an advantage of the behaviourist approach?
P - One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is based on well-controlled research.
E - The behaviourist focused on the measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. By breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus-response units it allows for all possible extraneous variables to be removed, which allows for cause and effect to be established.
E - Skinner was able to clearly demonstrate how reinforcement influenced an animal's behaviour.
L - This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility.
39
What is a counterpoint to the behaviourist approach being highly controlled?
P - However, the problem with the behaviourist approach is they may have oversimplified the learning process.
E - This is because by reducing behaviour to such simple components it could lead to some influences on learning being ignored.
E - Other approaches, such as the social learning theory and cognitive approach have drawn attention to the fact that mental processes are also involved in learning which the behaviourists approach has ignored.
L - Therefore, learning may be more complex than observable behaviours alone as private mental processes are essential.
40
What is another strength of the behaviourist approach?
P - Another strength is that the principles of the behaviourist approach and conditioning can be applied to real-world behaviours and problems.
E - Operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that are used in institutions like prisons and psychiatric wards.
These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges.
In addition, classical conditioning can be used in the treatment of phobias.
L - This increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application.
41
What is a limitation of the behaviourist approach?
P - One limitation is that it sees all behaviour to be conditioned by past experiences.
E - Skinner suggests that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. He argues that when something happens we think we made a conscious choice, but it is rather our past conditioning history determining the outcome. This ignores any influence our free will has on behaviour.
L - Therefore, its an extreme position as it's environmentally deterministic and ignores the influence of conscious decision making on behaviour.
42
What is another limitation of the behaviourist approach?
P - Another limitation is that the research to support may be unethical.
E - This is because although procedures such as Skinners box allowed behaviourists to maintain a high degree of control over their experimental subjects, the animals were housed in harsh conditions which lacked food.
L - This means the research is highly unethical which is a disadvantage.
43
What is social learning theory?
Bandura proposed SLT. It is a way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct (classical and operant conditioning) and indirect (vicarious reinforcement) reinforcement whilst combining the role of cognitive factors.
Bandura agreed with behaviourists that behaviour is learned from experience but believes we learn through observations and imitations.
SLT is the bridge between the behaviourist and cognitive approach as it focuses on mental processes being involved in learning.
44
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. The learner may imitate this behaviour but imitation only occurs when the behaviour is rewarded rather than punished. Therefore they observe both the behaviour and the consequence.
45
What are mediational processes?
Cognitive factors which influence learning and come between stimulus and response. The mental factors which mediate in the learning processes determine whether a new response is acquired.
Bandura identified 4 which are used in learning
46
Outline and explain the mediational processes
ARMM
Attention - The extent to which we notice certain behaviours.
Retention - How well the behaviour is remembered
Motor Reproduction - The ability of the observer to perform the behaviour. It is essentially how well they think they can do the behaviour.
Motivation - The will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished.
Attention and Retention are concerned with the learning of the behaviour and Motor Reproduction and Motivation are concerned with the performance of the behaviour.
47
What is identification?
A desire to be associated with a particular person or group often because the person/group has desirable characteristics.
People are more likely to imitate those they identify with. The person we identify with tends to be a role model.
48
What is modelling?
Imitating the behaviour of a role model. It is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.
49
How does someone become a role model?
By possessing similar characteristics to the observer (gender, status, )
Role models may not necessarily be physically present in the environment and this has important implications for the influence of the media on behaviour.
50
What is an example of modelling?
In James Bulger's case, where a toddler was murdered by two 10 year boys. This is because many believed they were inspired by the horror film Child's Play 3.
51
What study supports social learning theory?
Bandura et al recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo doll. The adults hit the doll with a hammer and verbally abused it.
Findings - The children who observed an aggressive adult behaved more aggressively when playing with the doll than the children who observed a non-aggressive adult.
In another study by Bandura and Walters, they showed videos where children where an adult behaved aggressively towards the doll. One group saw the adults being praised for their behaviour, whilst the other saw the adults being punished and the third group saw no consequence.
Findings - The first group showed much more aggression, then the third group and finally the second group.
52
What is an advantage of the social learning theory?
P - One strength of the social learning theory is that it recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning.
E - This is because neither classical or operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own. Humans and animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions.
E - Bandura states that "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what they do."
L - This suggests that SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of mediational processes.
53
What is a counterpoint to the cognitive factors recognised in social learning theory?
P- However, SLT has been criticised for making too little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning.
E - This is because though Bandura claimed natural biological differences influenced our learning potential, he thought learning was determined by our environment.
E - However, recent research suggests that observational learning may be the result of mirror neurons in the brain, which allows us to empathise and imitate others.
L - This suggests that biological influences on social learning were under-emphasised in SLT.
54
What is another strength of social learning theory?
P - One strength is that it includes the element of free will.
E - This is because Bandura emphasised reciprocal, in the sense that we are not merely influenced by our external environment but can also choose the behaviours we display in motor reproduction
L - This contrasts with the behaviourist approach which denies the possibility of free will.
55
What is another advantage of social learning theory?
P - Another strength is that SLT principles have been applied to a range of real-world behaviours.
E - SLT has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour. Concepts such as modelling, imitation and reinforcement can account for how children learn from others around them including the media which explains how cultural norms can be transmitted through society.
This is useful in understanding the behaviours of children and how they come to understand gender roles.
L - This increases the value of the approach as it accounts for real life behaviour.
56
What is a limitation of social learning?
P - One limitation of social learning theory is that the evidence on which it is based was gathered through lab studies.
E - Many of Bandura's ideas were developed through observation of young children's behaviour in the lab. This is because lab studies are often criticised for their contrived nature where participants may respond to demand characteristics.
It has been suggested, that in relation to the Bobo doll research the children only behaved that way because it was expected of them.
L - Therefore, it suggests that the research tells us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.
57
What is the cognitive approach?
The cognitive approach states that internal mental processes should and can be studied scientifically.
It is concerned with how certain internal mental processes which were neglected by behaviourists, such as thoughts memory and perception, affect behaviour.
These are private processes and can't be observed so are studied indirectly by making inferences.
58
What is a schema?
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. Schemas are developed through experience.
They allow you to interpret incoming information which is received by the cognitive system and respond appropriately.
59
Do babies have a schema?
Yes, we are born with our schema, so babies have a simple motor schema for innate behaviours (grasping, sucking).
60
Does the schema change overtime?
As a person grows, their schema becomes more detailed and sophisticated. This means adults have developed mental representations for everything.
61
What are the advantages of having a schema?
-Schemas allow us to process a lot of information quickly.
-Schemas are useful as a mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
62
What is a disadvantage of having a schema?
-Schemas can distort our interpretations of sensory information, which leads to perceptual errors.
63
How do theoretical and computer models link to the cognitive approach?
Cognitive psychologists use theoretical and computer models to help understand internal mental processes.
Theoretical models are linked to abstract ideas
Computer models are linked to concrete ideas
64
Explain one theoretical model
The information processing approach suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in stages.
The stages are input, storage and retrieval, like in the MSM.
65
What is the difference between the information processing model and computer models?
The model is based on the way computers function but a computer model would involve actually programming a computer to see if the instructions can produce a similar output to humans.
If they do produce a similar output, we can suggest similar processes are going on in the human mind.
Computer models of the mind have proved useful in the development of AI.
66
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
Mapping areas of the brain which are specific to certain cognitive functions is useful.
67
Explain a study linked to cognitive neuroscience.
In the 1860s, Broca identified how damage to an area in the frontal lobe (Broca's Area) could permanently impair speech production.
68
What has cognitive neuroscience allowed?
Advances with brain imaging techniques, such as fMRIs and PET scans in the last 20 years, allow for systematic observations and descriptions based on neurology.
69
Give two studies from memory which support cognitive neuroscience.
Tulving et al - research involving tasks that require the use of episodic and semantic memory showed how the different types of long term memory may be located on different sides of the prefrontal cortex.
Braver et al - The system in overall charge of the WMM (central executive) is thought to be in a similar area to the types of LTM.
70
What have scanning techniques done?
They've been useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders (OCD and the parahippocampal gyrus)
71
What has cognitive neuroscience led to?
- development of mind mapping techniques such as brain fingerprinting.
This could allow the analysing of the brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine if they're lying in court.
72
What is an advantage of the cognitive approach?
P - One strength is that it uses objective and scientific methods.
E - Cognitive psychologists have highly controlled methods of study so researchers can infer cognitive processes at work.
This involves lab studies which produce reliable and objective data.
E - In addition, the emergence of cognitive neuroscience has allowed biology and cognitive psychology to come together to enhance the scientific basis of study.
L - This means that the study of the mind has a credible scientific basis.
73
What is a counterpoint to the scientific methods of the cognitive approach?
P - As cognitive psychology relies on the inference of mental processes, rather than direct observation, it can suffer from being too abstract and theoretical.
E - Research studies of mental health processes are often carried out using artificial stimuli which may not represent everyday experience (memory tests involving a list- Baddley)
L - Therefore, research on cognitive processes may lack external validity.
74
What is another strength of the cognitive approach?
P - Another strength is that it has practical application.
E - The cognitive approach is the dominant approach in psychology and has been applied to many theories.
Cognitive psychology is important in AI and the development of robots.
These advances can revolutionise how we live in the future.
E - Cognitive principles have also been applied in treating depression (CBT and REBT) and the reliability of eyewitness testimonies,.
L - This supports the value of the cognitive approach.
75
What is a limitation of the cognitive approach?
P - One limitation is that it is based on machine reductionism.
E - This is because there are similarities between the human mind and the operations of a computer, as it inputs and stores information.
E - The computer analogy has been criticised as machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this affects information processing.
For instance, research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors, such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitness testimonies.
L - This suggests that machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach.
76
What is a third strength to the cognitive approach?
P - Another strength is that it can be accused of soft determinism.
E - This means the approach believes that behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors but we can also exert free will.
L - This is an advantage as it accounts for other factors which have an effect on behaviour.
77
What is the biological approach?
A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body, such as neural function and genes, on behaviour.
Everything psychological is believed to be first biological.
78
What is a difference between the biological and cognitive approach?
The biological approach argues the mind is in the brain, so all thoughts and feelings have a physical basis.
However, the cognitive approach sees the mind as separate from the physical brain.
79
What is biological structure?
An arrangement or organisaton of parts to form an organ, system or living thing.
80
What is neurochemistry?
The action of chemicals in the brain. It's related to chemicals in the brain which regulate biological and psychological functioning.
81
What do neurotransmitters do?
Chemicals that allow neurons to communicate with each other throughout the body. A lot of our thoughts and behaviour relies on chemical transmission in the brain.
82
What can an imbalance of neurochemicals cause?
This has been linked to possibly causing. Low levels of serotonin can cause OCD.
83
What are genes?
They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism (eye colour and height) and psychological features (mental disorders and intelligence).
Genes are inherited from parents.
84
How do twin studies link to the biological approach?
They are used to investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a genetic basis.
This is done through concordance rates, which refers to the extent which twins share the same characteristic.
If a characteristic is genetic we expect all monozygotic twins to be concordant, as they share 100% of the same genes.
However, in dizygotic twins who share 50% of the same genes it wouldn't be the same.
IN BOTH THESE CASES THE ENVIRONMENT IS CONSTANT.
85
What is a genotype?
The particular set of genes that a person possesses so their genetic makeup.
86
What is a phenotype?
The characteristics of an individual are determined by genes and the environment so the way the genes are expressed (biologically, psychologically and behaviourally).
The phenotype of identical twins can be different which shows that much of behaviour is dependent on interactions of inherited factors and environment.
87
What is evolution?
Evolution refers to the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations.
88
How does evolution link to the biological approach?
Darwin proposed a theory of natural selection which states that any genetically determined behaviour which enhances survival will continue in future generations through reproduction.
e.g - giraffes and having a long neck
If an individual survives but doesn't reproduce, the traits don't remain in the gene pool.
89
What is an advantage of the biological approach?
P - One strength is that it has real world application.
E - This is because there is increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain linked to psychoactive drugs which can treat serious mental disorders.
E - The biological approach has promoted the treatment of clinical depression using antidepressants which increase serotonin levels.
These drugs have been seen to reduce depressive symptoms.
L - This means that people with depression may be able to better manage their condition and live a relatively normal life.
90
What is a counterpoint to the real world application of the biological approach?
P - Though antidepressants are successful for many, they don't work for everyone.
E - Cipriani et al compared 21 antidepressant drugs and found wide variations in the effectiveness. Most of the drugs were more effective than placebos in comparative trials but the researcher found that the effect of antidepressants were mainly modest, so wasn't very effective.
L - This challenges the value of the biological approach because it suggests that brain chemistry may not account for all cases of depression.
91
What is another strength of the biological approach?
P - Another strength is that it uses scientific methods of investigation.
E - To investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, it must be done with precise and objective methods.
E - These methods can include fMRI scans and EEGs. Advances in technology allow for accurate measurement of physiological and neural processes in ways which don't allow for bias.
L - This means that much of the biological approach is based on objective and reliable data.
92
What is a limitation of the biological approach?
P - One limitation is that it is biologically determinist.
E - This is because it sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes that we have no control over.
E - However, we've seen through the way genes are expressed that the environment has a heavy influence. This is because even twins who have 100% of the same genes aren't always the same.
A purely genetic explanation is also problematic when looking at crime, as it could suggest individuals aren't responsible for their actions due to genetic vulnerability.
L - This suggests that the biological view is too simplistic and ignores the effect of the environment.
93
What is another limitation of the biological approach?
P - Another limitation is that natural selection cannot be falsified.
E - Popper states we can't show evolution happening but just draw a logical conclusion that it occurred. However, others claim that the basic principles are supported by fossil fuels.
L - This means natural selection may not be a substantial theory.
94
What is the psychodynamic approach?
A perspective by Freud that describes the different forces (mainly unconscious) that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.
95
What does Freud suggest about the mind?
The conscious mind, which is the part we know and are aware about, is the tip of the iceberg.
Most of our mind is made up of the unconscious - a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that have a significant influence on behaviour and personality. It contains disturbing memories that have been repressed.
96
What are parapraxes?
Parapraxes allow for memories which have been repressed in the unconscious to be accessed through dreams or freudian slips (slips of the tongue).
97
What is under the unconscious?
The pre-conscious which contains thoughts and memories. These memories aren't currently in conscious awareness but can be accessed if desired.
98
How is the personality structured?
There are three parts of the personality.
Id
Ego
Superego
99
What is the role of the Id?
This is the primitive part of our personality as it is the only part present at birth.
It operates on the pleasure principle, so does what it wants. The Id is entirely selfish and demands instant gratification.
It is entirely made of unconscious drives and instincts.
100
What is the role of the ego?
This is the reality principle and it mediates between the Id and superego.
It develops around 2 years old and it reduces conflict between the demands of the other aspects. This is done by employing defence mechanisms.
101
What are defence mechanisms?
Unconscious mechanisms which aid the ego to prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats. They involve some distortion of reality and can be regarded as unhealthy.
102
Explain the different defence mechanisms?
Denial - Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality.
Displacement - Transferring feelings from the true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target.
Repression - Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind.
103
What is the role of the superego?
This is our internalised sense of right and wrong. It is based on the morality principle as it represents the moral standards of a child's same-sex parent (identification)
It punishes the ego for wrongdoing through guilt.
It is formed at the end of the phallic stage so around 5 years.
104
What are the psychosexual stages?
These are five developmental stages which all children pass through.
Each stage is marked by a different conflict which the child must resolve in order to progress successfully to the next stage.
Any unresolved conflict can lead to fixation which is where the child becomes stuck and carries certain behaviours linked to that stage into adult life.
105
Describe the first psychosexual stage
Oral (between 0-1 years)
- the focus of pleasure at this stage is the mouth so the mother's breast is the object of desire.
unresolved conflict - leads to oral fixation
-nail biting and smoking
-sarcastic and critical tendencies
106
Describe the second psychosexual stage
Anal (between 1-3 years)
- the focus of pleasure is the anus. A child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces.
unresolved conflict
- anal retentive (causes people to be perfectionists and obsessive)
- anal expulsive (causes people to be thoughtless and messy)
107
Describe the third psychosexual stage
Phallic (between 3-6 years)
- the focus of pleasure is the genital area. A child experiences the oedipus or electra complex.
unresolved conflict
- phallic personality (causes people to be narcissistic, reckless and possibly homosexual)
108
What is the Oedipus complex?
This is when little boys develop incestous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their rival (father).
Boys fear that they will be castrated by their father so repress feelings for their other and identify with their father. This causes them to take on his gender role and moral values.
109
What is the Electra complex?
This is when girls experience 'penis envy' which causes them to desire their father. This is because the penis is the primary love object so girls hate their mother as they believe she removed their penis.
Overtime, girls lose the desire for their father and replace it with the need for a baby, causing them to identify with their mother.
110
Explain a case study linked to the Oedipus complex
The study of Little Hans.
This is about a 5-year old boy who developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street.
Freud suggests the phobia is a form of displacement, where his repressed fear of his father was transferred onto horses.
This means horses were a representation of his unconscious fear of castration.
111
Describe the fourth psychosexual stage
Latency
- earlier conflicts are repressed
112
Describe the fifth psychosexual stage
Genital
- sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
unresolved conflict
- difficulty forming hetersexual relationships
113
What is a strength of the psychodynamic approach?
P - One strength is that it introduced the idea of psychotherapy.
E - Freud brought around a new form of therapy, which is psychoanalysis. This was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically.
The new therapy uses a range of techniques which allow the unconscious to be accessed. One example of this is through dream analysis.
E - Psychoanalysis claims to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions into the conscious mind to be dealt with. It can be seen as the forerunner to modern day talking therapies, such as counselling.
L - This shows the value of the psychodynamic approach in creating a new approach to treatment.
114
What is a counterpoint to the real world application in the psychodynamic approach?
P - Though Freudian therapies have claimed success for many clients with mild neuroses, psychoanalysis is regarded as inappropriate and even harmful for people experiencing more serious mental disorders like schizophrenia.
E - Many of the symptoms of schizophrenia, such as paranoia and delusional thinking, mean that those with the disorder have lost their grip on reality and can't articulate their thoughts.
L - This suggests that Freudian therapy may not apply to all mental disorders.
115
What is another strength of the psychodynamic approach?
P - Another strength is its ability to explain human behaviour.
E - Though Freud may be controversial, his theory has had a huge influence on psychology.
E - The psychodynamic approach remained a key force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century alongside the behaviourist approach.. It has also been used to explain a wide range of phenomena including personality development, abnormal behaviour and moral development.
The approach is also significant in drawing attention to the connection between childhood experiences and later development.
L - This suggests that the psychodynamic approach has had a positive impact on psychology.
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What is a limitation of the psychodynamic approach?
P - One limitation is that it is untestable.
E - Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach doesn't meet the scientific criteria of falsification. This is because it's not open to empirical testing and the possibility of being disproved.
E - Many of Freud's concepts such as the Id, are said to occur at an unconscious level, which makes them difficult to test.
In addition, some of his ideas were based on subjective studies of individuals, such as the Oedipus complex which is based on Little Hans. This means the claims are not universal.
L - This suggests that the theory is pseudoscientific, not a real science, rather than established fact.
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What is another limitation of the psychodynamic approach?
P - Another limitation is that it can be accused of psychic determinism.
E - The approach suggests much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts and Freud believed accidents were not real. Critics claim this is an extreme view because it dismisses any possible influence of free will on behaviour.
L - Therefore it removes the idea of other factors such as free will affecting behaviour.
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What is the humanistic approach?
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person's capacity for self-determinism.
This approach accounts for free will.
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What is free will?
The belief that humans can make their own choices and their behaviour isn't determined by internal biological or external forces, however they can still have an effect.
This makes people active agents.
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What do humanistic psychologists do?
They reject more scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of behaviour as all agents are unique. Due to this they believe psychology should focus on subjective experience rather than general laws, this is known as a 'person-centred approach'
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What is Maslow's Hierarchy of needs?
Maslow focused on what motivated people. He created a five levelled sequence where basic physiological needs must be satisfied before higher psychological needs can be achieved.
The four lower levels are deficiency needs and self actualisation is a growth need.
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Explain the steps of hierarchy of needs.
Physiological needs (food and water)
Safety and Security
Love and belongingness
Self-esteem
Self-actualisation
A person can only progress once the current need in the sequence has been met.
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What is self actualisation?
The innate desire to grow psychologically and fulfill one's full potential, it allows someone to become what they're capable of.
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Is personal growth important in humanistic psychology?
Personal growth is seen as an essential part of what it is to be human. It is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal orientated.
Not everyone will manage this as there are important psychological barriers which could prevent someone reaching their full potential.
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What is Rogers view on self and congruence?
Rogers argues for personal growth to be achieved an individual's concept of self, which is the way they perceive themselves, must be broadly equal/ have congruence with their ideal self, which is the person they want to be.
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What happens if the gap between self and ideal self is too big?
If the gap is too big the person will be in a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings which arise from incongruence.
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How can the gap between the two selves be reduced?
To reduce the gap, Rogers created client-centred therapy to help people cope with the problems of everyday living.
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What did Rogers believe to cause the issues experienced in adulthood?
He believes issues such as worthlessness and low self-esteem have their roots in childhood due to a lack of unconditional positive regard (unconditional love) from our parents.
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What are conditions of worth?
When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children. This can store psychological problems for that child in the future, which can stop them achieving self-actualisation.
Therefore, Rogers gave clients the unconditional positive regards, which they lacked in childhood, in therapy.
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What is the importance of person-centred therapy?
Rogers person-centred therapy is an important form of modern day psychotherapy which led to counselling which can be applied in many settings, such as helplines.
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How does Rogers see those in therapy?
As clients rather than patients, because he saw the individual as the expert in their own condition.
Therefore, therapy is not directed by the therapist and the client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions within the therapeutic atmosphere that is supportive.
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What should an effective therapist provide the client?
Rogers believes they should offer...
-genuineness
-empathy
-unconditional positive regard
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What is the aim of Rogerian therapy?
-To increase the person's feelings of self-worth.
-Reduce the level of incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self.
-Help the person become a more fully functioning person.
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Has Rogers work been applied in any countries?
In the UK and the US, similar counselling skills are practised, not only in clinical settings.
They are carried out in...
-schools
-social work
industry
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What are the advantages of client centred therapy?
-It is a forward looking approach, which means it considers future developments when making plans.
-It is an effective approach that focuses on present problems rather than dwelling on the past.
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What is a disadvantage of client centred therapy?
-It is best applied to the treatment of mild psychological conditions, such as anxiety.
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What is an advantage of the humanistic approach?
P - One strength is that it is not reductionist.
E- This means it rejects attempts to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components.
E - Behaviourists explain human and animal learning in terms of simple stimulus-response connections. The cognitive approach sees humans as little more than information processing machines. Biological psychologists reduce behaviour to physiological processes.
However, the humanistic approach advocates for holism, which is the idea that subjective experience can only be understood when considering the person as a whole.
L - This means the approach may have more validity than other alternatives.
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What is a counterpoint to the humanistic approach not being reductionist?
P - However, reductionist approaches tend to be more scientific, as the ideal of science is the experiment. Experiments reduce behaviour to independent and dependent variables.
E - An issue with the humanistic approach is that there are few concepts within it that can be broken down to single variables and measured.
L- This means that humanistic psychology is short on empirical evidence to support its claims.
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What is another strength of the humanistic approach?
P - Another strength of the humanistic approach is that it is optimistic.
E - Humanistic psychologists have been praised for 'bringing the person back into psychology' and promoting a positive image of the human condition.
Freud saw humans as being slaves to their past and claimed all of us existed somewhere between 'common unhappiness and absolute despair'
E - However, the humanistic approach sees all people as basically good, free to work towards their achievement of potential and in control of their lives.
L - This suggests that humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative to other approaches.
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What is a limitation of the humanistic approach?
P - One limitation is that it may be culturally biased.
E - Many ideas in humanistic psychology, such as individual freedom and personal growth, would be linked to individualistic cultures like the US.
E - Collectivist cultures, such as India, emphasise the need for groups, community and interdependence. Therefore they may not identify with the values of humanistic psychology.
L - This means it may not be possible to apply this approach universally.
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What is another limitation of the humanistic approach?
P - Another limitation is that humanistic psychology has had little impact and practical application in the real world.
E - This means it is a limited explanation made up of loose abstract ideas.
E - However, Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling and Maslow's hierarchy of needs has been used in many businesses.
L - Though, the humanistic approach may not have as much impact as other approaches it has still impacted treatment.
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Which approaches are considered in comparison?
Biological
Behaviourist
Cognitive
Psychodynamic
Social learning theory
Humanistic
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What are the six topics discussed in comparison of approaches?
-Development
-Nature vs Nurture
-Reductionism
-Determinism
-Treatment implications
-Scientific Method
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What does developmental mean in comparison of approaches?
Development is a general term which describes how mental processes including thinking, reasoning and our understanding of the world change overtime.
Psychologists are concerned with how development in childhood has implications on later adult relationships.
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Explain each approaches view on development.
Psychodynamic- Most coherent theory of development as it links its concepts to specific psychosexual stages that are determined by age. Freud saw very little further development once a child entered the genital stage.
Cognitive - The stages within this approach (development of a schema) have contributed to our understanding of child development.
Biological - Maturing is important in the biological approach which can lead to sex differences in genders. Genetically determined changes influence a child's psychological and behavioural characteristics.
Humanistic- They see the development of self as ongoing throughout life. However, childhood is a particularly important stage because a child's relationship with their parents can affect development through unconditional positive regard.
Behaviourist- Do not offer a coherent explanation to theories of development but instead see the processes that underpin learning as continuous.
SLT- Do not offer a coherent explanation to theories of development but instead see the processes that underpin learning as continuous.
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What does nature vs nurture mean in comparison of approaches?
This debate is focused on whether human behaviour is influenced by more innate biological factors or external factors such as the environment and experience.
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Explain each approaches view on nature vs nurture.
Biological- Behaviour is the result of our genotype, which refers to the genes we inherit from our parents, but is expressed as our phenotype, which is influenced by the environment (nature)
Psychodynamic - Freud believed much of our behaviour is driven by biological drives and instincts. However, he also saw our relationships with our parents to have an impact (both)
Cognitive- Many of our information processing abilities and schema are innate but refined through experience. (both)
Behaviourist- Babies are born with their minds 'tabula rasa' and suggest all behaviour is due to learning associations and reinforcement (nurture)
SLT- Behaviour comes about through observation and imitation (nurture)
Humanistic- Parents, friends and wider society have a critical impact on the person's self concept (nurture)
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What does reductionism mean in comparison of approaches?
The belief that human behaviour can be best explained by breaking it down into its constituent parts.
e.g - a single faulty gene contributes to the development of schizophrenia.
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What is the opposite of reductionism?
Holism, the view that phenomena is best understood by looking at the whole picture and the interaction of different factors.
150
Explain the approaches view on reductionism.
Behaviourist - Reduces complex learning into stimulus response units to make testing in a lab easier. It uses animal studies and assumes we are passive (environmental reductionism)
Biological- Reduces behaviour to be understood at the level of genes and neurons (biological reductionism)
Cognitive- Reduces people to information processing systems and ignores the influence of emotion on behaviour (machine reductionism)
Psychodynamic- Reduces much of our behaviour to the influence of sexual drives and biological instincts. However, Freud's argument that personality is made up of 3 parts is viewed as a holistic explanation.
SLT- Reduces complex learning to a handful of processes (imitation, modelling). However, it does place some emphasis on cognitive factors that mediate learning and how they interact with external factors.
Humanistic- This takes on a holistic approach to understanding behaviour and involves investigating all aspects of an individual, including the effects of interactions with others and wider society.
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What does determinism mean in comparison of approaches?
All behaviour has an internal and external cause and is therefore predictable. It ignores the role of free will.
e.g - if you have a gene that predisposes you to violence you WILL become violent.
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Explain the approaches view on determinism.
Behaviourist- All behaviour is environmentally determined by external influences that we are unable to control, such as operant conditioning (environmental determinism)
Biological- Much of our behaviour is directed by innate influences, such as genes (genetic determinism)
Psychodynamic- Behaviour is caused by unconscious forces that drive our behaviour and these forces are just justified by our conscious mind (psychic determinism)
Cognitive- We are the choosers of our own thoughts and behaviourists, but these choices only operate within the limits of our experience (schema)
SLT- Like Bandura, the approach believes as well as being influenced by our environment, we also exert some influence upon the behaviours we choose to perform (reciprocal determinism)
Humanistic- Human beings have free will and operate as active agents who determine their own actions and development.
153
Which approaches can be seen to take a hard deterministic view?
Behaviourist
Biological
Psychodynamic
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Which approaches can be seen to take a soft deterministic view?
Cognitive
SLT
155
What does treatment implications mean in comparison of approaches?
Refers to whether any treatment practices have stemmed from an approach.
156
Explain each of the approaches impact in treatment.
Behaviourist- It sees abnormality as arising from maladaptive behaviour or faulty learning which causes destructive patterns to be reinforced. Behaviour therapies, such as SD, which aim to condition new and healthy responses, have been applied successfully to the treatment of phobias.
Psychodynamic- Freud saw anxiety disorders as emerging from unconscious conflict, childhood trauma and the overuse of defence mechanisms. Psychoanalysis had some success as a therapy but isn't appropriate for all as it requires considerable input from the patient to talk and reflect on emotions.
Cognitive- CBT is effective and applicable in the treatment of depression as it aims to eradicate faulty thinking which is assumed to be the root cause of maladaptive behaviour.
Humanistic- Rogers brought about counselling which closes the gap between the self concept and ideal self, which will increase self esteem and stimulate personal growth.
Biological - Revolutionised the treatment of mental disorders through drug therapy which regulates chemical imbalances.
SLT- This has had relatively little application to treatment, but the principles of modelling and observable learning have been used to explain how negative behaviours like aggression may be learned through role models.
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What does idiographic mean in comparison of approaches?
An approach to research that focuses on the individual case in order to understand behaviour, rather than aiming to form general laws.
-Uses case studies and qualitative methods
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What does nomothetic mean in comparison of approaches?
An approach that aims to create general laws of behaviour rather than individual unique cases.
-Uses lab experiments and quantitative methods
159
Explain whether the approaches use scientific methods
Biological - Uses more scientific methods, such as lab studies and brain imaging/ scanning techniques which are objective. The results can be replicated. (nomothetic)
Cognitive- Mental processes are tested using scientific methods but they are often inferred so may lack objectivity. (nomothetic)
Behaviourist- Highly objective and experimentally based, focuses only on measurable behaviour. (nomothetic)
SLT- Research investigations can be replicated due to the use of scientific methods. (nomothetic)
Psychodynamic- Limited scientific application due to the use of case studies and subjective interpretation of clients' dreams. (idiographic)
Humanistic- Against the use of scientific methods as they're not appropriate for studying the complexities of human consciousness and experience. (idiographic)
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What are advantages of the idiographic method?
-Provides a complete and global understanding of the individual which increases the validity of the findings.
-Qualitative findings can serve as a source of ideas for further experimental research.
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What are disadvantages of the idiographic method?
- Cannot generalise findings to wider population
-It is more subjective and unstandardised so reduces the reliability of findings
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What are advantages of the nomothetic method?
-Able to generalise laws to apply to all people, which is useful in predicting behaviour.
-Scientific so it allows us to seek patterns in behaviour and look for causes
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What are disadvantages of the nomothetic method?
-Predictions made from a group of results may not be applicable to all so it fails to account for free will
-Leaves us with superficial understanding of people as it's only quantitative data
