Aggression Flashcards

Question

What is an innate releasing mechanism (IRM)?

Answer 1

A physiological process or neural network which is activated by a sign stimulus which in turn triggers a fixed action pattern of behaviours associated with that stimulus.

Answer 2

A sequence of stereotyped, pre-programmed behaviours triggered by an innate releasing mechanism and does not require learning.

Answer 3

Universal, stereotyped, innate, ballistic, specific triggers and single purpose.

Answer 4

Tinbergen (1951) During the mating season, male stickleback fish develop a red spot on their underbelly - sign stimulus. Tinbergen presented sticklebacks with a series of wooden models of different shapes, with and without a red underbelly. He found that regardless of the shape, if the model had no red spot there was no aggression, even if the model looked realistically like a stickleback, and if there was a red spot, the fish would always attack it. FAPSs were unchanging from one encounter to another and once triggered, it always completed its course.

Answer 5

If an animal is aggressive, it forces the "defeated animal" to establish territory elsewhere and so reduces competition for food and the possibility of starvation

Answer 6

Aggressiveness is a series of behaviours carried out in a set order in the form of ritualistic signalling and threat displays (e.g. gorilla beating chest, wolf baring teeth, cat displaying claws).

Answer 7

Aggressive confrontations end with ritual appeasement displays which indicate acceptance of defeat and inhibit further aggression behaviour in the victor, preventing any damage to the loser.

Answer 8

It prevents an animal being damaged and potentially killed which facilitates the survival of the wider species.

Answer 9

Unable to explain cultural differences: Nisbett (1993) found there was a North-South divide in homicide rates in the USA. Killings more common amongst white males in the Southern states. Caused by a "culture of honour" where response to reactive aggression is a learnt social norm. Nisbett et al. (1996) further supported this and found that when white males from the south were insulted in a research situation, they were more likely than northern white males to become aggressive. It is difficult for ethological theory, with its view of aggression as instinctive, to explain how culture can override innate influences. FAPs are more flexible than implied by the term "fixed" Hunt (1973) argued that the role of environmental factors have been underestimated. The duration of each behaviour varies from one individual to another and even in the same individual from one encounter to another. Suggests they are modifiable by experienced and better explained as "modal behaviour patterns".

Answer 10

Benefits of ritualised aggression: It prevents conflict escalating into potentially dangerous physical aggression. Changnan (1992) extensively studied the Yanomamo people of South America where a willingness to use violence was indesirable. Their culture provides a regulated system to control there violence expressions. Changnan found conflict is regulated through chest pounding and club fighting and the people can remain on peaceful terms afterwards, preventing injury or death HOWEVER, Goodall (2010) studied male chimps and found one community of chimps systematically slaughtered members of another group even though victims were showing signs of appeasement. This challenges the notion that ritualised aggression is a harmless ritual.

Answer 11

The belief that aggression has evolved because it solved challenges faced by our distant ancestors and so became more widespread in the gene pool, through the process of natural selection. Males compete for females as they seek to secure their mate's fidelity.

Answer 12

The fear in men that they may be raising another man’s offspring and so investing resources in offspring that are not their own genetic makeup.

Answer 13

An adaptation evolved in males to deal with paternal uncertainty.

Answer 14

Violent strategies driven by sexual jealousy which aim to prevent the female from mating with other males. Direct guarding, negative inducements

Answer 15

Direct guarding - restricting the females freedom to prevent males from gaining access. Negative inducements - Issuing aggressive threats regarding potential infidelity

Answer 16

· Male bullying – adaptive because it signals desirable characteristics for females (e.g. dominance) and so increases chances of sexual reproduction · Female bullying – adaptive as they use bullying behaviour to secure partner’s fidelity so they will continue to provide resources for future offspring which enhances reproductive success.

Answer 17

Shackleford et al. (2005): revealed a link between mate retention stratergies and physical violence in relationships. Investigated intimate partner violence (IPV) in 107 heterosexual married couples by giving them questionnaires. Males were given a questionnaire which assessed their mate retention behaviours and women were given a questionnaire which measured the extent of their partner’s violence. Found a strong positive correlation between men’s reports of their mate retention behaviours and women’s reports of their partners’ physical violence. These findings suggest adaptive mate retention strategies developed in males through evolution which can lead to more aggression. COUNTER - Self report and social desirability bias.

Answer 18

Sexual Jealousy - Violence link: Evidence shows mate retention strategies are linked to female-directed violence in heterosexual relationships. Wilson et al. (1995) asked women to report mate retention strategies in their partners. This was measured in terms of the extent to which they agreed with statements like, ‘he insists on knowing who you are with and where you are at all times’. They found that women who agreed with such statements and reported mate retention strategies in their partners were twice as likely to have experienced physical violence at the hands on their parents. Of these women, 73% required medical attention and 53% said they feared for their lives. Explains gender differences in aggression: Males historically more aggressive. Campbell (1999) found that a female with offspring is motivated to be less aggressive because such behaviour would put her and her child’s survival at risk. Therefore, they implement a more adaptive strategy and use verbal aggression as a means of retaining a partner who’s able to continue to provide resources, and to avoid becoming involved in life-threatening situations involving physical aggression. Counter-argument: Prinz (2012) suggests differences in aggression between genders are a product of different socialisation experiences. It has been found that parents are more likely to physically punish boys for poor conduct

Answer 19

Aggression is not always adaptive: Violent or aggressive behaviour can result in social ostracism, injury or even death in extreme cases. Violent male might die in battle or be rejected as mates which can either negatively affect their reproductive opportunities or inhibit the advancement of their genes. Therefore, aggression might be considered more maladaptive than adaptive in some cases. COUNTER - Duntley and Buss (2004) suggest that adaptive benefits must be evaluated within the context of the costs of carrying out an aggressive behaviour. One critical context for costs pertains to the reputational consequences of aggression. Within “cultures of honour”, failure to aggress when insulted can lead to status loss. Cost-benefit analysis must be carried out

Answer 20

The hypothesis suggests that frustration always results in aggression and aggression is always caused by frustration.

Answer 21

Feelings which occur when we are prevented from achieving our goals.

Answer 22

A form of emotional release by engaging in aggressive behaviour or aggressive thoughts about the target which caused their frustration.

Answer 23

A psychodynamic concept which views aggression as a psychological drive akin to biological drives such as hunger.

Answer 24

When aggression is displaced from the source of the frustration on to someone or something else (e.g. an inanimate object, younger sibling, pet, etc.).

Answer 25

Frustration creates a readiness for aggression and acting on this drive is cathartic.

Answer 26

· Cause of frustration may be abstract. · Cause may be too powerful, and we may risk punishment by aggressing against it. · Cause may be unavailable at the time.

Answer 27

Frustration creates a readiness for aggression, but it is the cues in the environment which make us more likely to act upon it.

Answer 28

Male university students had to complete a jigsaw puzzle, but their levels of frustration were manipulated. In one group the puzzle was impossible to solve, in another they ran out of time because a confederate kept interfering and the last group were insulted by the confederate as they failed to solve the puzzle. The participants then had to issue electric shocks to confederate when they made a mistake on another task. He found that the insulted participants gave the strongest shocks on average, followed by the interfered group and lastly the impossible task group. All three groups selected more intense shocks than a non-frustrated control group. These findings support the concept that frustration triggers aggressive behaviour and thus providing support for the frustration-aggression hypothesis.

Answer 29

100 male participants received electric shocks from a confederate, ranging from one to seven shocks, designed to create anger and frustration. Participants then had the opportunity to turn the tables and give electric shocks to the confederate in one of three conditions – aggressive cue (two guns) present on a table next to the shock machine, non-aggressive cue (badminton racquet) present on a table and no cue present. Found that participants in the gun condition gave an average number of shocks of 6.07. In the no gun condition they gave an average of 4.67.

Answer 30

Marcus-Newhall et al. (2000) conducted a meta-analysis of 49 studies of displaced aggression. These studies investigated situations in which aggressive behaviour had to be directed against a ‘human target’ other than the one who caused frustration. They found that frustrated participants who were provoked but unable to retaliate directly against the source of their frustration were significantly more likely to aggress against an innocent party, than people who were not provoked. This provides conclusive evidence that depicts displaced aggression as a reliable phenomenon and suggests that frustration can lead to aggression against a weaker or more available target. The frustration-aggression hypothesis has been used as an explanation for historical instances of genocide and mass killings. Staub (1996) found that mass killings are often rooted in the frustration caused by rapid societal change, political turmoil, economic difficulties, conflict within a society between dominant and subordinate groups. This then leads to scapegoating (finding someone to blame) in the form of displaced aggression. For example, following WWI many Germans blamed the Jews for the loss of the war and the severe economic problems that followed, which lead to significant violence toward, and genocide of, millions of Jews during the Holocaust in WWII.

Answer 31

Aggression is not always cathartic. Bushman (2002) found that participants who vented their anger by repeatedly hitting a punching bag whilst imagining the source of their anger actually became more aggressive than less. Ironically, doing nothing was more effective at reducing aggression than venting anger. Bushman argues that using venting to reduce anger is akin to using petrol to put out a fire. Therefore, the suggests that the core assumption of the frustration-aggression hypothesis lacks validity in practice and is more in line with cognitive neo association theory. This theory states that when someone experiences distress, their previously stored memories and thoughts. Bushman argues that venting while ruminating about the source of provocation keeps aggressive thoughts in memory and only increases aggression. It has been found that frustration does not always lead to aggression and that aggression can occur without frustration. Reifman et al. (1991) investigated the established ‘heat-aggression relationship’ in the context of US baseball games. They found that as temperatures increased, so did the numbers of players hit by a pitch. This therefore suggests that the frustration-aggression hypothesis isn’t a wholly comprehensive explanation as it can explains how aggression arises in select situations. Counter-argument: Berkowitz (1989) reformulated his initial hypothesis to take this criticism into account, which led to the negative affect theory. This theory suggests that frustration is just one of many stimuli that create negative feelings which lead to aggression (others include jealously, pain, loneliness). So aggressive behaviour is triggered by negative feelings generally rather than by frustration specifically

Answer 32

Children acquire aggressive behaviours through observing aggressive models and the consequences of their behaviour. Aggressive acts carried out by a role model will be internalised by an individual and reproduced in the future.

Answer 33

Attention - A basic cognitive requirement is that the observer must pay attention to the model's aggressive actions. Retention - The observer also needs to be able to remember the model's aggressive actions to form a symbolic mental representation of how the behaviour is performed. Motor reproduction - The observer must be able to transform the mental representation of the aggressive behaviour into actual physical action. Motivation - The observer needs a reason to imitate behaviour, which will depend on their expectations that acting aggressively in certain situations will be rewarded.

Answer 34

If a model’s aggressive behaviour is rewarded (or not punished) then the child learns that aggression can be effective in getting what they want, which makes it more likely that the observing child will imitate the model’s aggressive behaviour.

Answer 35

If a model’s aggressive behaviour is punished then the child learns that aggression is not beneficial behaviour to achieve their goals, which makes it less likely that the observing child will imitate the model’s aggressive behaviour.

Answer 36

The extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal – a child’s confidence in their ability to be aggressive grows as they learn that aggression can bring rewards.

Answer 37

Bandura (1961) - observation and imitation of aggressive/non-aggressive role models. Bandura (1965) - imitation of aggressive behaviour based on observed consequence and incentive offered

Answer 38

Bandura found that the children who observed the aggressive adult model imitated the exact same aggressive behaviour toward the bobo doll All children were more likely to imitate same-sex models.

Answer 39

Children were shown an adult model either being rewarded, punished or receive no consequence for acting aggressively towards a bobo doll. Bandura found that children who saw model receive praise and reward were more likely to imitate aggression toward the bobo doll.

Answer 40

Real World Application: The American Psychological Association (APA) developed the ACT (Raising Safe Kids) program, an early prevention intervention, that aims to educate parents and caregivers of young children. The program is designed to educate caregivers to be positive role models through a decrease in coercive parenting behaviour, encouraging positive discipline and increasing child development knowledge. Research support: Gee and Leith (2007) - analysed penalty records from 200 games of the National Hockey League and found players born in North America were disproportionately more likely to commit aggressive acts than their European counterparts. They hypothesised that players born in North America would have been exposed to greater media representation of aggressive models when young and likely received reinforcement from coaches, teammates, parents ect. Explains cultural differences: SLT can be used to explain cultural differences in aggression. Among !Kung, one of the San peoples who live in the Kalahari Desert, displays of aggression are rare. This could be due to their child-rearing practices. Parents avoid aggressive postures and they’re devalued by society at large. This overt lack of aggressive role models and absence of direct reinforcement of aggressive behaviour has led to little motivation for !Kung children to acquire aggressive behaviours through social learning.

Answer 41

Low mundane realism: Many studies investigating aggression and social learning rely on experimental research conducted under controlled conditions. For example, Bandura et al.’s (1961) Bobo doll study, has various methodological problems. The Bobo doll is not a living creature and does not retaliate when hit. Additionally, the doll is a toy which is designed to be struck. Perhaps just hitting it as that's what they thought they were supposed to do. Unable to explain reactive aggression The principles of SLT don’t provide sufficient explanation for the occurrence of reactive aggression. Reactive aggression occurs instantly in response to a trigger, or as a retaliation tactic (lacks premeditation or forethought). Found that boys aged 9-12 influenced each others proactive aggression as they attach a positive value to the use of this behaviour, including reinforcement by peers. However, reactive aggression was found to not be impacted by peers in the same way due to the unreliability of consequences. This suggests that children do not learn reactive aggression through social learning, and thus the social learning explanation for aggression is not comprehensive as it does not explain all types of aggression.

Answer 42

A psychological state in which an individual loses their personal identity and takes on the identity of the social group.

Answer 43

In an individuated state, behaviour is normative and rational (conforms to social norms), whereas de-individuated behaviours are impulsive, disinhibited, irrational and anti-normative.

Answer 44

· Anonymity – less easily identifiable due to shared visual similarity. · Consumption of alcohol and/or drugs (altered state of consciousness) – inhibitions are loosened, and executive functions are suppressed, leading to increased impulsion. · Diffusion of responsibility – shared responsibility for actions which reduces guilt.

Answer 45

· Private self-awareness – how we pay attention to our own feelings. · Public self-awareness – how much we care about what other people think of our behaviour.

Answer 46

· Public self-awareness – we care less about what other people think when in crowds as we are less easily identified (anonymity). · Private self-awareness – we pay less attention to our own feelings because we experience less responsibility for our own actions (diffusion of responsibility).

Answer 47

1. Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment (1972) 2. Zimbardo (1969)

Answer 48

Groups of 4 female ptpts were asked to deliver electric shocks to a confederate to ais learning. They issued the shocks in one of either 2 conditions: 1 -De-individuated state (never referred to by name, sat in separate cubicles, wearing hoods and lab coats) 2- Individuated state (wore name tags and normal clothes, introduced to each other). Participants in the de-individuated condition more likely to issue an electric shock and hold the button down for twice as long.

Answer 49

Prison guards were in a de-individuated state – acting in a group, had anonymity due to wearing uniforms and mirrored sunglasses.

Answer 50

Real-world application: De-individuation can explain the aggressive crowd behaviour of ‘baiting’ – a phenomena whereby people encourage or urge a suicide jumper to jump. Mann (1981) analysed instances of suicide jumps reported in the US. In ten out of the 21 cases analysed, it was found that when a crowd had gathered to watch, baiting had occurred. Mann suggested that membership in a large crowd, the cover of night time, and physical distance between crowd and victim (all factors associated with anonymity) were likely to produce a state of de-individuation in the members of the crowd. The power of baiting was also evident in Mullen’s (1986) analysis of 60 lynchings in the US between 1899 and 1946. It was found the more people there were in the mob, the greater the savagery with which the perpetrators killed their victims. Ecologically valid research: Douglas and McGarthy (2001) found a strong correlation between anonymity and ‘flaming’ (posting hostile messages) with most aggressive messages being sent by those who chose to hide their real identities (common behaviour of online ‘trolls’. Furthermore, Diener et al. (1976) conducted a covert, natural experiment of 1,300 trick-or-treating children at Halloween who were observed under different conditions – one condition of anonymity, one of non-anonymity, and then conditions of being alone or in a group. The children were given the opportunity to steal sweets and money. Those children who were in a group and anonymous were the group who stole the most at 57%, compared to 21% in the group that were identifiable. This therefore supports the link between aggressive behaviour and anonymity, which strengthens a key element of de-individuation theory.

Answer 51

Gender differences: Cannavale et al. (1970) found that male and female groups responded differently under de-individuated conditions, where an increase in aggression was obtained only in the all-male groups. Eagly (2013) suggested that this disparity exists because males respond to provocation in more extreme ways than females and being in a de-individuated state magnifies this tendency. This suggests a gender bias in the theory, where the theory cannot be applied to females. Prosocial behaviours: It has been found that de-individuation can lead to individuals engaging in altruistic prosocial behaviours. Specifically, Johnson and Downing (1979) found that when dressed as nurses, participants gave fewer shocks to a confederate than a control group in normal clothes. The nurse group were also noted to be more compassionate towards the victim, in line with the prosocial role associated with a nursing uniform. This therefore showed divergent effects of the de-individuation manipulation based on the cues contained in the clothes which could also be interpreted as signalling a contextual norm. These findings shows that social learning and group norms influence behaviours.

Answer 52

Aggressive or violent behaviour that takes place within the context of a formal organised setting.

Answer 53

Highlights the cause of a particular behaviour as being due to the characteristics of the individual (their disposition) rather than any aspect of the situation.

Answer 54

Highlights the cause of a particular behaviour as being due to the context in which it occurs rather than the characteristics of the individual.

Answer 55

Inmates import their beliefs, values, norms, attitudes and personal characteristics such as race, gender and class into the prison. Prisoners have violent and aggressive experiences outside of the prison resulting in violent and aggressive behaviours inside the prison. These aggressive behaviours are imported as a means of navigating and negotiating their way through the prison environment and therefore the use of aggression helps to establish power, status, influence and access to resources.

Answer 56

DeLisi et al. (2011): Studies 813 Juvenile offenders confined in Californian institutions. They all had negative backgrounds including experiences of childhood trauma, high levels of anger and irritability and a history of substance abuse. The researcher controlled these with a control group of inmates who didn't have these negative backgrounds. They found the "negative" inmates were more likely to engage in suicidal activity and sexual misconduct, and committed more acts of physical violence. These individuals were thus importing these characteristics into prison.

Answer 57

Places the cause of institutional aggression within the prison environment itself. The harsh, oppressive prison conditions and the extreme deprivation leads to stress/frustration and lack of stimulation for inmates who resort to aggression to cope (adaptive solution). Psychological factors inmates are deprived of include freedom, autonomy, safety, independence and sexual intimacy. Deprivation of material goods and services increases competition amongst inmates.

Answer 58

Steiner (2009) investigated the factors that predicted aggression in 512 US prisons across 45 states. Found that inmate on inmate violence was more common in prisons where there were higher proportions of female staff, black and Hispanic inmates and inmates in protective custody. Overcrowding also seen to increase levels of violence. These environmental factors which are separate from the individual reliably predicted violent and aggressive behaviour,

Answer 59

Research support: Camp and Gaes (2005) studied 561 male inmates with similar criminal histories and predispositions to aggression. Half were randomly placed in Californian low-security prisons and half in high-security prisons. Over a two-year period, they found that 33% of low-security and 36% of high-security inmates were involved in aggressive misconduct. These findings show no statistically significant difference between the aggressive behaviours at the respective prisons, which suggests that features of the prison environment are less important predictors of aggressive behaviour than characteristics of the inmates. Therefore, such evidence supports the notion that aggressive and violent tendencies possessed by inmates prior to incarceration are an accurate predictor of violence and aggression within the prison context Ignores factors relating to management of the prisons: Dilulio (1991) argues that the importation model is an inadequate explanation of institutional aggression as it ignores the role of prison officials and factors relating to the running of the prison. He proposed an administrative control model (ACM). This states that poorly managed prisons are more likely to experience the most serious forms of inmate violence. Poor management is characterised by several factors including weak and indecisive leadership, a culture of informal and unofficial rules, staff who remain distant from inmates and few opportunities for education. Suggests the importation model is not a wholly comprehensive explanation.

Answer 60

Research support: Cunningham et al. (2010) analysed 35 inmate homicides in Texas prisons between 2000 and 2008. They found that the perpetrators’ motivations for their violent behaviours were linked to the deprivations experienced within the confines of the prison environment. . Particularly important were arguments over drugs, sexual activity and relationships, and personal possessions. Cheeseman (2003) found the lack of stimulation and focus caused by the prison setting increased aggression levels. This aggression was then released in the form of violence to relieve stress.Factors such as overcrowding link in as there is greater competition for limited resources. This then elicits an aggressive response and the formation of gangs to help compete for resources takes this further. Contradictory reserach: Hensley et al. (2002) studied 256 male and female inmates of two prisons in Mississippi, a state of the US which allows conjugal visits. The deprivation model would predict that this would lead to a reduction in aggression as they are not being deprived of sexual intimacy. However, there was no link between involvement in these visits and reduced aggressive behaviour. In addition, McCorkle et al. (1995) investigated aggression in 371 state prisons in the US and found little evidence to support the link between violence and overcrowding. McCorkle points out that stress is experienced by most individuals in a prison environment, but not all individuals resort to aggression.

Answer 61

Importation model: It has been argued that elements of both the deprivation and importation models are valid. It has been suggested that the importation model is a better explanation of violence between inmates, but the deprivation model is more useful in understanding aggression against prison staff. Dobbs and Waid (2004) argue in favour of an interactionist model. Inmates entering prison for the first time will suffer deprivation, but deprivation doesn’t necessarily lead to violence unless it combines with the individual characteristics imported into the prison by inmates.

Answer 62

Changes in behaviour attributed to exposure to media such as TV, computer, or video games.

Answer 63

There is an interactive element which means the individual is an active player rather than a passive observer. Game playing often involves engaging in violent behaviour which is often directly rewarding for the player.

Answer 64

Communication channels such as TV, film and books through which news, education and data are available.

Answer 65

Robertson et al (2013) - New Zealand, excessive TV watching on children and adolescence Bjorkqvist (1985) - Finish children's aggressive behaviour using humorous or realistic depictions of violence in films.

Answer 66

Bartholomew and Anderson (2022) - aggressive provocation after playing violent or non-violent games. Anderson et al. (2010) - meta-analysis investigating effects of violent video games in individualist and collectivist cultures.

Answer 67

Conducted a longitudinal study to investigate whether excessive television viewing through childhood and adolescence was associated with increased antisocial behaviour in early adulthood. Over 1000 individuals born in New Zealand were studied at regular intervals from birth to 26 yrs. They found that young adults who had spent more time watching television during childhood and adolescence were significantly more likely to have a criminal conviction, a diagnosis of antisocial personality disorder, and more aggressive personality traits compared with those who viewed less television. The associations were statistically significant after controlling for sex IQ, socio-economic status, previous antisocial behaviour, and parental control.

Answer 68

Conducted an experiment in which 20 5-6 year-old Finnish children were exposed to one of five films depicting either humorous/realistic violence in the form of a cartoon, or humorous/realistic violence in a film with live actors, or a non-violent control film The children were placed in pairs and observed in a playroom before and after viewing the film. It was found that those who had watched the violent films, irrespective of humorous or realistic features, showed an increase in aggressive behaviour. This includes physical aggression, verbal aggression and aggression towards objects.

Answer 69

43 undergrads volunteered to participate in the experiment. Participants were randomly assigned to either violent (Mortal Kombat) or nonviolent video game (PGA Tournament golf) conditions and asked to play the game for 10 mins. They then competed in a retaliation reaction time task in which they thought they were competing with a confederate. Participants would receive a punishment after each losing trial in the form of white noise blasts, a measure of aggressive provocation. The opponent (confederate) set the severity of the punishment in the first phase. Then, the roles were reversed; the participants set the duration and of punishment in the second phase. It was found that participants who played the violent game set higher levels of noise punishment compared with those who played the nonviolent game.

Answer 70

Conducted a meta-analysis of 136 studies testing the effects of violent video on aggressive behaviour. The analyses found that violent game exposure was associated with a significant increase in aggressive behaviour, cognition and emotions. Additionally, VGV exposure was related to desensitisation and lack of empathy and prosocial behaviour. This was true for both males and females and across collectivist and individualist cultures.

Answer 71

Broad range of research methodologies: The use of varied research methodologies when examining media effects on aggression allows diverse, accurate, active interactions to be shown. Experimental studies (Bjorkqvist, Bartholomew and Anderson) allow us to establish a causal relationship between media aggression and aggressive behaviour; they have high internal validity due to control of variables. Longitudinal studies (Robertson) allow researchers to investigate changes in aggressive behaviour over time. This posits a more realistic view of how people interact with media, and how their interactions change over time

Answer 72

Competency over content: Although many studies assume violent games create feelings of aggression, it could be that aggressive behaviour may be linked to a player’s experience of failure and frustration (levels of competency) during a game rather than the game’s violent storyline. Przybylski et al (2014 found it was the lack of mastery and game difficulty that caused aggression, and this was evident between violent and non-violent games. Thus, the view that violent games cause aggression are clearly too simplistic. Publication bias: The file drawer problem – a well-known tendency in scientific research towards only publishing findings that are statistically significant and the non-significant results get left in the “filing cabinet”. Therefore, meaning we do not have access to all the non-statistically vital research that could tell us just as much. This is a particular issue for meta-analyses as they only analyse the findings of published studies and so are not getting an accurate picture, leading them to conclude there is a significant finding when there might not be. Varied measurements of aggression: Research into media influences measures aggression is varied ways. Some studies use volume of white noise blasts, or the amount of hot sauce administered as indices of aggressive displays. Yet, these measures are simulated and differ substantially from measuring aggression based on overt displays of violent behaviour or one’s history of criminal convictions. Therefore, studies lack external validity as the unrealistic methodological setup of such an experiment makes it difficult to make inferences about real aggression through video gameplay.

Answer 73

Repeated exposure to violence decreases sensitivity to stimuli, reducing physiological and psychological arousal associated with anxiety making behaviour such as aggression more likely. Causes individuals to feel less empathetic towards victims and increasingly accept aggression as the social norm.

Answer 74

Occurs when the social sanctions which normally inhibit aggressive behaviour are undermined due to exposure to violent media which portrays aggression as justified and socially acceptable. This makes aggression more likely as one's restraints are loosened.

Answer 75

The way a person thinks in triggered by "scripts" which makes us ready to respond in certain ways. Aggressive media acts as priming stimuli or cues for a schema for an aggressive behaviour. Thus exposure to these cues in a similar environment can trigger the memory, leading to the reproduction of aggression.

Answer 76

Weisz and Earls (1995) showed male and female university students one of 4 films depicting various types of aggression: (a) sexual aggression against a male (Deliverance); (b) sexual aggression against a female (Straw Dogs); (c) physical aggression (Die Hard 2); or (d) a control film containing no explicit aggression (Days of Thunder). After viewing the film, all subjects were asked to complete a questionnaire measuring the acceptance of interpersonal violence, acceptance of rape myths, attraction to aggression and levels of empathy. Participants then viewed a re-enactment of a rape trial and completed a 23-item rape trial questionnaire. Results showed males were more accepting of interpersonal violence and rape myths, more attracted to aggression, less sympathetic toward the rape trial victim, and less likely to judge the defendant as guilty of rape.

Answer 77

Berkowitz and Alioto (1973) found that participants who saw a film depicting aggression as vengeance gave more (fake) electric shocks of longer duration to a confederate. This suggests media violence may disinhibit aggressive behaviour when it’s presented as justified. Violence as vengeance is seen as justified and therefore makes aggressive behaviour more socially acceptable.

Answer 78

Fischer and Greitemeyer (2006) sought to investigate the impact of misogynous and men-hating song lyrics on aggressive behaviour. In study one, male and female participants were exposed to either misogynist or neutral song lyrics. Afterward, in a seemingly unrelated second marketing study, they were asked to add hot sauce to a sandwich prepared for either a female or male confederate. They found that male participants who listened to misogynous music administered more hot chili sauce to the female confederate than did female participants and male participants overall administered more hot chili sauce to women than to men. In study two, female and male participants listened to two different misogynous, men-hating, or neutral songs. In a secondary task, participants were asked to assign the time for two subsequent participants to keep their hand in ice water on a sheet with a male and female name. They found that male participants who listened to misogynist song lyrics assigned longer times of ice water treatment to the female target person. Female participants who listened to men-hating music assigned longer times of ice water treatment to the male target person than did women who listened to neutral and misogynous music.

Answer 79

Additional research support: Krahé et al. (2011) showed participants either a violent or non-violent film whilst measuring physiological arousal using skin conductance. Participants who were habitual viewers of violent media showed lower levels of arousal when watching violent film clips. They also reported lower levels of anxious arousal and more pleasure when watching the films. This behaviour correlated with an unprovoked (proactive aggression) display of aggression in a ‘white noise’ blast task whereby they directed louder blasts to a confederate. Thus, lower arousal in violent media users reflects desensitisation to the effects of violence and is also linked to greater willingness to behave aggressively. Counter-evidence: Instead of decreasing emotional responsiveness to violence, Anderson and Dill (2000) found that after exposure to violent media, there was an increase in aggressive and hostile thoughts

Answer 80

Supported by cartoon violence Children do not learn specific aggressive behaviours from cartoon models as animated depictions of aggression and violence are largely comedic and unrealistic (e.g. punching someone so hard that their head spins round 360 degrees). Instead, they learn that aggression in general is acceptable and socially normative. This notion is especially true if the cartoon model is not punished which therefore disinhibits aggressive behaviour in the observer. Therefore, disinhibition theory can explain why observation of cartoon aggression increases one’s inclination to behave aggressively in real life, enhancing the theory’s validity. Other factors important: Depends on other factors The likelihood of disinhibition taking place is determined by several factors many of which depend on the viewer themselves as well as the context in which the media is viewed. Collins (1989) For children growing up in homes where strong norms exist against violence, they are unlikely to experience sufficient disinhibition for them to display aggressive behaviours. This is further true if adults discussed issues from the film with the child. This suggests that the relationship between media violence and disinhibition is not clear cut, and a number of factors mediate such as individual and social characteristics

Answer 81

Real-world application Whether real-world situations become violent often depends on how people interpret environmental cues. This in turn depends on the cognitive scripts they have stored in memory. Bushman and Anderson (2002) argue that someone who habitually watches violent media accesses stored aggressive scripts more readily. They are therefore are more likely to interpret cues as aggressive and resort to a violent solution without considering the alternatives. This suggests that interventions could potentially reduce aggressive behaviour by challenging hostile cognitive biases. Confounding variables The issue is that violent games tend to be much more complex in their gameplay than non-violent games and this complexity is a confounding variable. Zendle et al. (2018) found that when complexity was controlled, the priming effects of violent video games disappeared. Complex games make players more engaged or stressed, influencing their reaction. Therefore, the supportive findings of studies into priming may be at least partly due to confounding variables, and such the reliability of cognitive priming as an indicator and explanation of aggression is significantly reduced.