Gender Flashcards

Question

Outline the case study of David Reimer

Answer 1

David Reimer was born as the elder of identical twin boys. When the twins were 7 months old, they were referred for circumcision to fix a urinary problem. Tragically, the operation on David was botched and David’s penis was burned beyond surgical repair. David’s parents sought advice from Dr. John Money, a psychologist who was developing a reputation as a pioneer in the field of sexual development and gender identity. Money and his team persuaded the baby's parents that sex reassignment surgery would be in Reimer's best interest. At the age of 22 months, David underwent the procedure in which his testes were surgically removed, and a rudimentary vulva was constructed by genital plastic surgery. David was reassigned to be raised as female. Over the next 10 years the twins visited Money regularly because their case provided a unique natural experiment, a normal XY male raised as a female with an identical twin brother as a control. By the age of 13 years, Reimer was experiencing suicidal depression and he told his parents he would take his own life if they made him see Money again. Finally at 14 Reimer's parents told him the truth about his sex reassignment, following advice from Reimer's endocrinologist and psychiatrist. Having been informed of his past by his father, Reimer decided to assume a male gender identity, calling himself David. He underwent treatment to reverse the reassignment, including testosterone injections, a double mastectomy, and phalloplasty operations.

Answer 2

Found in the nucleus of living cells which carry all the genetic information (DNA) for an organism. Humans have 46 arranged into 23 pairs.

Answer 3

A male hormone produced in the testes that controls the development of male sex organs prenatally and stimulates the development of secondary characteristics during puberty.

Answer 4

A female hormone produced by the ovaries which determines sex organs prenatally and stimulates the development of secondary sex characteristics during puberty. Also directs the menstrual cycle.

Answer 5

Support from individuals raised as a different gender to their sex: David Reimer Reiner and Gearhart (2004) studied 16 genetic males born with almost no penis. Two were raised as males and remained males; the remaining 14 were raised as females. 8 of these females reassigned themselves as males by the age of 16. Research support for the role of testosterone: The link between increased testosterone and sexual behaviour in mature males was seen in a study by Wang et al. (2000). Male hypogonadism is a condition caused by a man’s testes failing to produce normal levels of the male sex hormone. 227 hypogonadal men were given testosterone therapy for 180 days. Testosterone replacement improved sexual function, libido and mood, and significant increases in muscle strength were observed within the sample. This study shows that testosterone exerts a powerful and direct influence on male sexual arousal, as well as physical development, in adulthood. COUNTER - however, other evidence on the effect of testosterone is less convincing. In a double-blind, placebo study, O’Connor et al. (2004) increased testosterone levels in healthy young men. There was no significant increase in aggression and ager, as well as the interactional (i.e. frequency of sexual intercourse) or non-interactional (i.e. sex drive) components of sexual behaviour in participants. This suggests that additional testosterone may have no effect on sexual or aggressive behaviour. Real-life application: Research into the role hormones in sex and gender has led to significant beneficial practical applications. For example, administering oxytocin has proved beneficial during childbirth as it reduces haemorrhaging, decreasing mortality rates in mothers and infants. Oxytocin has also proved helpful in instigating labour and maintaining labour and the secretion of milk so mothers can breastfeed. Testosterone has proven useful for men with problems attaining and maintaining erections or with low libido. It has also proved useful in increasing libido in women who are post-menopausal or have had a hysterectomy. Whilst oestrogen supplements offer increased protection against the risk of strokes and protection against osteoporosis in post-menopausal women.

Answer 6

Reductionist view: Ignores and underestimates alternative explanations for gender development. The cognitive approach would draw attention to the influence that changing thought processes, such as schemas, have on gender development. Specifically, they would suggest that children look to the gendered behaviour of their in-group to make sense of the world and their place in it. Furthermore, the biological account ignores the vital role of social factors in gender-related behaviour. Hofstede et al. (2010) claim that gender roles around the world are much more a consequence of social norms than biology. Countries that place individual competition and independence above the needs of the community are more masculine in their outlook. Consequently, traditional masculine traits will be more highly valued within these societies. These alternative explanations challenge the biological explanations of gender behaviour which therefore suggest that gender is far more complex than its biological influences alone, and other factors may be more important in shaping gender behaviour and attitudes Overemphasis on nature: Evidence has shown that societal and cultural practices play an equally critical role in gender development. Imperato-McGinley et al. (1974) studied 4 children in the Batista family who were born with external female genetalia and raised as females. When they hit puberty the large increase in testosterone caused their male genetalia to appear. The "girls" accepted their new male identity without any difficulty. The ease of transition from male to female was due to acceptance of fluidity of gender within their community. This suggests that factors associated with nature can shape gender identity.

Answer 7

Klinefelter's syndrome and Turner's syndrome.

Answer 8

An abnormal / atypical chromosome pattern in males, where there is an extra X chromosome (XXY configuration). Around 1/500-1000 affected.

Answer 9

Taller than average, longer limbs, reduced body hair, breast development, less muscular coordination, underdeveloped genitalia resulting in possible infertility.

Answer 10

Poorly developed language and reading skills, displaying a passive and shy temperament, lacking interest in sexual activity and issues with memory and problem-solving.

Answer 11

An abnormal / atypical chromosome pattern in females, where there is only one X chromosome (XO configuration) – meaning affected females only have 45 chromosomes.

Answer 12

Shorter than average, high waist-to-hip ratio, no breast development, webbed neck, broad / ‘shield-like’ chest, underdeveloped ovaries – resulting in a lack of / no menstrual cycle and possible infertility.

Answer 13

Higher than average reading ability, poor spatial, visual memory and mathematical skills, social immaturity and troubles 'fitting in' amongst peers.

Answer 14

Practical application of research: Research into patients affected with Klinefelter's syndrome and Turner's syndrome has seen the development of therapies and methods of early intervention that improve the quality and duration of their lives. For example, treating stunted physical growth often seen with Turner's syndrome with growth hormones and the treatment of Klinefelter's syndrome with testosterone therapy. Moreover, continued research into atypical sex chromosome patterns is likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnoses of Turner’s and Klinefelter’s syndromes. This has the ability to lead to more positive outcomes for individuals in the future if continued awareness is placed on expanding access to support and overall knowledge of atypical sex chromosome patterns. Contribution to nature nurture debate: Research investigating people with atypical sex chromosome patterns has proved useful in contributing to our understanding of the nature-nurture debate in gender development. By comparing people who have these conditions with chromosome-typical individuals it allows us to see distinct differences between the two groups. For example, females with Turner’s syndrome tend to have higher verbal ability and tend to talk more than ‘typical’ girls. It might be logically inferred that these differences have a biological basis and are a direct result of the abnormal chromosomal structure. This would support the view that innate ‘nature’ influences have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour.

Answer 15

It relies on stereotypes of gender appropriate behaviour: The assumption that individuals with Turner’s syndrome are socially immature or those with Klinefelter’s syndrome have a lower sex drive is based on societal expectations of normal social maturity and interest in sexual activity rather than objective biological differences. Also we cannot establish a causal relationship between symptoms and biology as for example, social immaturity seen in females with Turner’s syndrome may arise from the fact that they are treated ‘immaturely’ by the people around them due to their pre-pubescent appearance. Further, Maccoby and Jacklin’s (1974) research highlights that there are greater differences between the sexes than within. This suggests these behaviours may not be caused by the syndromes themselves but could instead be shaped by social expectations. As a result, attributing these symptoms to atypical sex chromosomes and using these to contribute to our ideas of gender may be inaccurate. Sampling and population validity: In general, only those people who have the most severe symptoms are identified which suggests that research into Turner’s and Klinefelter’s syndrome lacks population validity. Research is therefore based on an unrepresentative sample as it likely excludes those who have milder symptoms, resulting in a distorted picture of “typical symptoms.” Boada et al. (2009) found prospective studies following XXY individuals from birth produced a more accurate picture of the characteristics – many people with Klinefelter’s don’t experience significant cognitive or psychological problems and many are highly successful academically and in their personal lives and careers. This suggests that the typical picture of Klinefelter’s and Turner’s syndrome may be exaggerated as research is skewed in its focus, therefore limiting the validity of such research.

Answer 16

A theory which explains how children change as they get older in terms of changes in the way they think.

Answer 17

The idea that a child’s understanding and mental concept of gender becomes more sophisticated with age as a result of biological maturation.

Answer 18

Piaget described all children as egocentric until the age of around 6 or 7, that is that they assume everyone sees the world in the same way as they do. This ideology is akin to Kohlberg’s theory regarding gender; before the age of 6, children do not understand that a person remains the same even when their outward appearance changes.

Answer 19

The understanding that the physical properties of an object or substance remain the same even when its outward appearance changes. Children will not be able to understand that gender is fixed and does not change with appearance until they have the ability to conserve.

Answer 20

Gender identity (2-3 years) Gender stability (4-5 years) Gender constancy (6 years onwards).

Answer 21

Children can recognise and correctly identify themselves and others as males and females, but this understanding does not stretch beyond simple labelling and children do not view gender as fixed – it is based on outward appearance.

Answer 22

Children understand that their own gender is consistent over time and remains fixed (i.e. they know they will be a man or a woman when they are older) but they cannot apply this logic to other people in other situations – still influenced by outward appearance.

Answer 23

Children understand that gender remains the same across time and situations, and they begin to identify with people of their own gender and start to behave in stereotypically gender-appropriate ways.

Answer 24

Evidence supporting his stages of development: Slaby and Frey (1975) interviewed 55 children ranging from 26-68 months using a series of questions which represented the 3 stages of Kohlberg's theory. When asked "When you grow up will you be a mummy or daddy" the answers given showed they didn't recognise these traits were stable until they reached 4 (in line with gender stability). When asked "Could you be [opposite sex] if you wanted to?" they found the children who responded correctly (assessing gender constancy) had demonstrated gender identity and stability in earlier questions suggesting understanding of gender increases with one's age. Further, they found children who scored high on stability and constancy questions showed more interest in same sex models, supporting Kohlberg's idea that children pay more attention to and show preference for same sex models after they reach constancy. Universality: Kohlberg's stages are influenced by changes in the developing brain and the increased intellectual capacity associated with age . Cross-cultural evidence has emphasised the validity of this. Munroe et al (1984) studied 3-9 year olds from 4 different cultures (Belize, Nepal, Samoa and Kenya). They found the sequence of stages may be universal and develop independently of culture. Confirms the biological basis of his theory and thus its valisity.

Answer 25

Beta-biased: Minimised the differences between genders when it came to gender development. However, research has suggested there are distinct gender differences. Huston (1985) found that it was relatively easy to get girls to engage in masculine activities but not vice versa. Males are also more likely to be punished for gender-inappropriate behaviour and therefore learn appropriate gender behaviours more quickly than girls. Overestimation of ages: Slaby and Frey (1975) also found that gender constancy appeared at a younger age than Kohlberg had suggested, as young as 5. Bussey and Bandura (1999) also found that children as young as 4 reported feeling good about playing with gender appropriate toys and "bad" about doing the opposite. This contradicts the theory as it shows children have acquired information about gender appropriate behaviour before Kohlberg suggested.

Answer 26

A generalised mental representation of everything we know about gender and gender-appropriate behaviour derived from experience. These schemas help a child make sense of the world as they form stereotypes about the ways that they think males and females behave (i.e. what toys to play with, what to wear, how to act etc.).

Answer 27

Martin and Halverson (1981).

Answer 28

Once a child has established gender identity around the ages of 2-3 years, he or she will begin to search the environment for information that encourages the development of their gender schema.

Answer 29

Both theories believe a child’s thinking is at the basis of their development of gender role behaviours and that children’s understanding of gender increases with age. Children develop their gender understanding by actively structuring their own learning, rather than passively observing and imitating role models.

Answer 30

GST argues that the process of acquiring gender-relevant information happens before gender constancy, at around 2-3 years old.

Answer 31

Through identifying as a boy or girl, children have a much better understanding of the schemas that relate to their own gender – they view their own group as the ‘in-group’ and the opposite as ‘out-group’.

Answer 32

In-group gender schemas are attitudes and expectations about one’s own gender, whilst out-group gender schemas are attitudes and expectations about the other gender.

Answer 33

In-group identity serves to increase the child’s level of self-esteem as they positively evaluate their own group and negatively evaluate outgroups (the other sex). This motivates the child to avoid the behaviour of the opposite sex and actively seek information about their in-group’s behaviour acquiring an in-group schema. It is not until children are a little older (around 8) that they build more elaborate schemas for both genders.

Answer 34

A child holds rigid and firm gender schemas that are resistant to change, and this drives them to ignore or misremember information that conflicts with their schemas (schematic anomalies) and selectively attend to gender-consistent information.

Answer 35

Research support for the resilience of gender schemas: Martin and Halverson (1983) developed research to test their theory. They asked five and six-year-olds to look at pictures of children playing. Some were schema-consistent (e.g. girl playing with a doll) and some were schema-inconsistent (e.g. girl playing with a toy gun). After a week, it was found that the children had switched the schema inconsistent images around and remembered, for example, a boy playing with a toy gun rather than a girl. They also asked children to recall pictures of people depicting a variety of professions. They found that children under the age of six recalled more gender consistent pictures (e.g. male firefighter) than gender-inconsistent ones (e.g. male nurse) when tested a week later. Children tended to change the sex of the person carrying out the gender-inconsistent activity when asked to recall. COUNTER - however, a criticism of this study is that simple conditioning can explain this preference in recall with children as they perhaps have greater exposure to gender stereotypes in the real world (more male fire fighters than females). Therefore, this finding may have nothing to do with schemas at all. Cultural differences: Cherry (2019) argues that gender schemas not only influence how people process information but what counts as culturally appropriate gender behaviour. Traditional cultures, that believe women should take a nurturing role and that men should pursue a career, will raise children who form schema which are consistent with this view. In societies where perceptions of gender have less rigid boundaries, children are more likely to acquire more fluid gender schema. Therefore, Martin and Halverson’s theory can explain how gender schemas are transmitted between members of a society and how cultural differences in gender stereotypes come about. This notion enhances the universality of the gender schema theory

Answer 36

Counter stereotypes in the media suggest gender resilience may not be accurate: Disney’s recent heroines such as Mulan and Brave have challenged traditional notions of gender and subvert widely held gender schemas but feminists have praised the use of these characters for inspiring young girls. Moreover, Pingree (1978) found that gender stereotyping was reduced amongst school age grils when shown TV advrts featuring women in non-stereotypical roles. This goes against gender-schema theory as the girls do not misremember the stories because they go against their gender schemas, instead they are inspired by them (Disney) or they reduce their gender stereotyping of others (Pingree et al. 1978). Uncertainty regarding gender identity development: Evidence has shown that gender identity may develop earlier than Martin and Halverson proposed. Zosuls et al. (2009) longitudinally examined a sample of 82 children focusing on two key aspects of children’s early gender development – the production of gender labels and sex-typed play. They examined the onset of children’s gender labelling as based on mothers’ biweekly reports on their children’s language development from 9 to 21 months, alongside videotaped analyses of children’s play with gender stereotyped and neutral toys, both alone and with mother at 17 and 21 months. They found that children started using gender labels at 19 months on average. Gender labelling predicted increases in sex-typed play, suggesting that knowledge of gender categories might influence sex-typing before the age of two.

Answer 37

The third psychosexual stage that occurs from 3-6 years old where the child’s source of libido is their genitals (penis / clitoris), and they experience pleasure from engaging in masturbation.

Answer 38

He believed that children were born gender-neutral and their gender identity developed in unconscious psychosexual stages, beginning with the two gender-neutral stages (oral and anal), when there is no visible difference between the behaviour of boys and girls. Freud proposed that children's perception of gender identity developed in the phallic stage as they navigate the conflict to establish their own gender identity.

Answer 39

A child’s gender identity is resolved either through the Oedipus complex (in boys) or the Electra complex (in girls).

Answer 40

When a boy develops sexual desires for his mother and harbour a hatred for his father because he sees him as a rival for the mother’s love, however he fears his father will punish him (castration anxiety) for his lust for his mother and thereby represses these feelings and identifies with his father in the process, internalising his gender role and moral values.

Answer 41

When boys fear their fathers will punish them by castrating them if they find out about their incestuous desire for their mother.

Answer 42

When a girl develops sexual desires for her father and views the penis as the primary love object and blames her mother for her lack of a penis (penis envy), but over time this is resolved by the girl repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis with the wish for a baby, thereby she identifies with her mother and internalises her gender role.

Answer 43

When girls experience distress due to the belief they had a penis, and they blame their mother for removing it (through castration).

Answer 44

In order to resolve their unconscious conflicts children will identify with and internalise the gender-related behaviours and attitudes of their same sex parent.

Answer 45

Little Hans (1909). Little Hans was a 5 year old boy with a severe phobia of white horses with blinkers and black spots around it's mouth. Freud saw Hans' phobia as an expression of the Oedipus Complex and his repressed fear of his father. Specifically, Freud believed he feared that the horse (his father) would bite (castrate) him as punishment for his incestuous desires for his mother. The fear of his father is displaced onto the horse with blinkers representing glasses and black bits his fathers facial hair

Answer 46

Research support: Freud's explanation of gender development means that, for boys, 'normal' development depends on being raised by at least one male parent. Rekers and Morey (1990) showed support for this by rating the gender identity of 49 boys aged 3-11 based on interviews. Of those who were judged to be gender disturbed , 75% had neither a biological or substitute father living with them. This increases the validity of Freuds theory as it supports the idea that due to identification with the father in the Oedipus complex, those raised with no father will have negative impacts on their gender identities. Stevenson and Black (1988) found a significant association between father absence and feminine gender roles in boys under 7 years of age. Father absence was associated with feminine gender orientation and preference, while it was associated with masculine gender adoption (i.e. sons of absent fathers seemed to think in a feminine way but behave in a masculine way). It is therefore assumed that father-absent boys have a feminine gender identity due to identification with the mother during childhood, and masculine behaviour as a reaction against this socially inappropriate feminine identity. COUNTER - Generally though, the relationship between absent fathers and problems of gender identity is not supported. A study by Bos and Sandfort (2010) compared data from 63 children where both parents were lesbians and 68 children from 'traditional' families. Children raised by lesbian parents felt less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes but there were no differences in terms of psychosocial adjustment or gender identity. This contradicts Freud's theory as it suggests that fathers are not necessary for healthy gender identity development, thus bringing the psychoanalytic theories regarding gender development and identity into question. Case study method: use of case studies to support his research on the Oedipus complex undermine the reliability of his theory. Specifically, the intensive study of Little Hans was used as the basis of Freud’s evidence for the complex, however, it is not possible to claim universality from a small number of individuals who exhibited abnormal characteristics. It is highly unlikely that other psychologists would have come to the same conclusion, suggesting the subjective nature of Freud’s research on gender development is built upon unreliable foundations.

Answer 47

Pseudoscientific: Psychodynamic theory believes the development of one’s gender is based upon unconscious conflicts (e.g. experiencing either castration anxiety and penis envy) that occur during the phallic stage. However, these conflicts are not open to empirical testing and therefore lack falsification. This means there is no way to objectively verify their existence, as they are not directly observable. This questions the validity of Freud’s theory as there is little objective, evidence to support them, and such affords psychodynamic theory the status of a pseudoscience.

Answer 48

Feminine and masculine behaviour is learned through observation and imitation of same-sex role models and through reinforcement for gender-appropriate behaviour.

Answer 49

Positive direct reinforcement is vital to increase a child's confidence and efficacy in engaging in the behaviour. This is because it is stored as an expectancy of future outcomes.

Answer 50

Direct reinforcement is vital to increase a child’s confidence and efficacy in engaging the behaviour as the information about reinforcements for given behaviours by models is stored as an expectancy of future outcomes.

Answer 51

The way in which boys and girls are reinforced by those close to them when they show distinct gender-appropriate behaviour; it is through this process that a child learns their gender identity directly and indirectly.

Answer 52

When a child observes another person gaining praise for gender-appropriate behaviour or punishment for gender-inappropriate behaviour. The behaviour is learnt through vicarious reinforcement, as behaviour for which another is praised is likely to be learned (and imitated) by the child observing, while behaviour that is punished is likely not to be performed by the observer.

Answer 53

Parents, siblings, teachers, friends, peers, etc. who model examples of appropriate and inappropriate behaviour, and the consequences of conforming or not conforming to gender norms (vicarious reinforcement).

Answer 54

The explicit instructions and guidance given to a child about gender-appropriate behaviour.

Answer 55

When a child internalises and adopts behaviours or attitudes shown by a role model. If the role model is someone the child admires and especially if they are the same sex as the child, then the behaviour is very likely to be imitated.

Answer 56

From the role model’s perspective – the precise demonstration of a behaviour that may be imitated by an observer (e.g. mother modelling stereotypically feminine behaviour when tidying the house) From the observer’s perspective – imitation of a behaviour portrayed by the model (e.g. when a little girl imitates her mother setting the table

Answer 57

1. Attention – noticing certain behaviour 2. Retention – how well behaviour is remembered 3. Motor reproduction – ability to perform behaviour 4. Motivation – behaviour will be performed if expectation of a positive consequence is greater than the expectation of a negative consequence

Answer 58

Research support for modelling: Perry and Bussey (1979) showed a group of children aged eight and nine, film clips that portrayed boys and girls selecting fruit such as an apple or pear, both of which were gender-neutral items. When the children were later given the choice of selecting fruit themselves, they chose fruit they had observed their same-gender model choose in the film clips. This demonstrates how children will imitate behaviours they observe in gender-appropriate models. COUNTER - however, the children only modelled the same-sex behaviour as long as the behaviour was not counter to gender stereotypes (e.g. a man wearing a dress). Therefore, whilst research supports social learning explanation of gender, it seems that the effects of modelling and subsequent imitation are limited by existing societal gender stereotypes. Accounts for social/ cultural changes: Social learning can explain cultural changes in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour. The way society views and emphasises stereotypical masculine and feminine behaviour has changed significantly throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. In the current climate, there is less of a clear-cut distinction between males and females, both in terms of gender as a construct and socially expected / acceptable behaviour. People are embracing the idea of androgyny, and gender fluidity more and more. This can be explained by a shift in social expectations and cultural norms over the years that has meant new forms of “acceptable gender behaviour” are now unlikely to be punished and may be reinforced. As there has been no corresponding change in people’s basic biology within the same period, such a shift in perspective is much better explained by theories of social learning, rather than the biological approach Support for agents of socialisation: Fagot (1978) conducted a series of five one-hour long observations of parents and their children playing together in their homes. It was found that parents reacted significantly more favourably to the child when the child was engaged in a same-sex-preferred behaviour. Boys were encouraged to play with toys such as trucks and building blocks and girls were praised for asking for help when it was needed and playing with dolls. Parents were also more likely to give negative responses to cross-sex-preferred behaviours. Girls were discouraged from running around, jumping, climbing, etc. and playing rough games and boys were discouraged from playing with dolls and asking for assistance. Such research enhances the validity of the idea that perceived gender-appropriate behaviours are vicariously reinforced by agents of socialisation, most notably by parents.

Answer 59

Overemphasis on social processes: Whilst SLT acknowledges the role of innate, biological behaviours, it does not incorporate them into the theory, and places too much emphasis on the role of the environment (nurture). SLT would suggest that through the processes of modelling, reinforcement, identification, etc. that a child could be raised any gender, despite their biological sex. Yet, the case study of David Reimer suggests that it is not possible to raise a biological male as a female and override chromosomal and hormonal influences. Modern researchers are more likely to adopt a biosocial theory of gender, which suggests that there are innate biological differences between boys and girls that are reinforced through social interaction and cultural expectations. Does not provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age: It would be unreasoned and illogical to suggest that, for instance, children who are two years old learn in the same way as children who are nine years old. This notion glaringly conflicts with Kohlberg's theory who argues that children do not become active in their gender development until they reach gender constancy. This suggests that influence of age and maturation on learning gender concepts is not a factor considered by social learning theory, hindering its generalisability and explanatory power.

Answer 60

The way in which social norms are transmitted and communicated.

Answer 61

The ideas, behaviours, attitudes, and traditions that exist within a large group of people that are passed down from one generation to the next and are often resistant to change. (Models, reinforcement, SLT)

Answer 62

Tools used to store, distribute and communicate information which may convey expectations around gender roles and gender-appropriate behaviours.

Answer 63

Margaret Mead (1935) carried out a detailed cross-cultural ethnographic study by living with 3 cultural groups in the Sepik region of Papua New Guinea for 2 years. Mead found that both Arapesh men and woman were feminine. They were both very expressive, gentle, caring and co-operative. Both the male and female took to bed when the female was pregnant as they were both said to ‘grow a child’. The Mundugumor (both sexes) were masculine and demonstrated assertive, arrogant, and hostile behaviour. Men did not want children and became annoyed when their wives got pregnant. As a result, maternal rejection was common, and the babies did not experience love. Tchambuli gender roles were seen as reversed compared to Western / industrialised society. The females were dominant and independent, and took care of trade arrangements, whereas the men were seen to be emotionally dependent on their wives and incapable of making decisions.

Answer 64

Buss (1989) found several consistent patterns in mate preferences across 37 cultures from 33 countries that he described as ‘evolved psychological mechanisms’ which are processes that solved a specific problem relating to survival or reproduction recurrently throughout human evolutionary history. Females value the financial capacity of potential mates, as well as ambition and industriousness (cues to resource acquisition). It was found that females in all 37 cultures preferred somewhat older mates too. Males however value physical attractiveness and relative youth (cues to high reproductive capacity).

Answer 65

Media portrays role models with whom children may identify with and imitate. Through oversimplifying and generalising representations of groups it can perpetuate biases and influence public opinion which can reinforce widespread stereotypes about gender roles.

Answer 66

Furnham and Farragher (2000) investigated the use of sex-role stereotypes in British and New Zealand television ads. In both New Zealand and British commercials, males were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles, whereas females were more likely to be seen in familial roles within domestic settings. British data revealed that female central figures were more likely to be depicted advertising inexpensive products. In both countries the sex-role stereotyping in voice-over material was stronger than visual material. Males dominate the voice-over modality with 69% of British voice-overs and 81% of New Zealand voice-overs being provided by men. Many advertisers still believe the male voice is more authoritative, convincing and knowledgeable.

Answer 67

One's confidence in their ability to carry out a specific behaviour. Media provides information about the likely outcomes of behaviour for men and women, thus seeing other people in the media perform gender-appropriate behaviours increases a child’s belief that they can carry out such behaviour in the future. Similarly, the failure of others that we identify with decreases a person’s faith in their ability to master similar skills or tasks.

Answer 68

- Margaret Mead (1935) - Buss (1989) - Furnham and Farragher (2000)

Answer 69

Supporting evidence: The influence of culture on changing gender roles is supported by evidence. Hofstede (2001) argues that in industrialised cultures the changing status and expectations of women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace and the shift away from the domestic sphere. This has led to a breakdown of traditional stereotypes in advanced industrialised societies. In traditional societies women still occupy the role of housemaker and primary caregiver as a result of social, cultural and religious pressures. The gendered division of labour varies between cultures highlights the influence of culture on gender roles and that this concept is not culturally universal, which ultimately suggests that gender roles are very much determined by cultural context.

Answer 70

Imposed etic: Cross-cultural research is typically undertaken by those from Western / industrialised societies. This can lead researchers, armed with theories and methods that have been developed in the West, to impose their own cultural interests and understanding upon the people they are studying. In short, the methods developed in one culture are used to assess behaviour in another. Berry et al. (2002) suggests that early anthropological research was “extractive rather than collaborative and that the instruments used were likely to be biased, both procedurally and conceptually. Such imposed etics can therefore make methods and findings meaningless. Thus, suggested that at least one member of the local population should be included within the research team as a way of guarding against this possibility of carrying out research which is assumed to be universal and actually may be meaningless when transferred to other cultures. Criticisms of Mead’s research questions her validity as a researcher: Derek Freeman published two books and numerous papers extensively criticising Mead’s early research into the life of Samoan women and girls. Freeman raised concerns over apparent anomalies in Mead’s research and claimed she did not place enough. Freeman, who worked with native Samoans in his own anthropological research, asserted that Mead had created a false picture of their behaviour. This suggests that Mead’s research and interpretations may suffer from subjectivity, and therefore demonstrate her researcher / observer bias and ethnocentrism.

Answer 71

Role played by counter stereotype models: The media acts as a key socialising agent for gender role development and evidence suggests that it can play a positive role in challenging traditional gender stereotypes. Disney's narrative has both upheld and challenged conventional gender stereotypes. The heroines' traditional romantic arcs have shifted to instead focus on self-discovery, leadership and challenging the traditional notions of masculinity and femininity. Films like Mulan (1998) and Brave (2012) feature female protagonists with traditionally masculine roles; both of which are skilled fighters and capable leaders. Frozen (2013) and Moana (2016) have been praised for feminist themes and transcending the confines of traditional female roles, displaying resilient and strong female characters. Moreover, Pingree (1978) found that gender stereotyping was reduced amongst school-aged girls when they were shown TV adverts featuring women in non-stereotypical roles. She found that girls were more appreciative and accepting of media which presents other females in non-traditional roles. Research support: A town in Canada provided researchers with the unique opportunity to examine the relationship. The town, which was code-named Notel, could not get TV because it was situated in a remote valley. Williams (1985) carried out a longitudinal, naturalistic study on this town and a town with a single TV channel (Unitel), and one with four broadcast channels and cable (Multitel). They studied the towns twice: once before TV came to Notel (Phase 1), and again after it had had TV for two years (Phase 2). Williams measured a series of outcomes, including children’s sex stereotypes, and found that children’s views and behaviours became significantly more sex-stereotyped post TV introduction. Such evidence enhances the explanatory power of the influence media has on gender role development.

Answer 72

Correlation not causation: It is argued that the relationship between gender roles and the media may not be causal. The fact that those who spend a lot of time on social media, TV and video games hold stronger gender-stereotyped beliefs is merely correlational evidence, not necessarily indicating media to be the cause of such attitudes. It could be that those with pre-existing gender stereotypes simply watch television a lot more to confirm their own innate stereotypes. Durkin (1985) norms within the child's family may be the bigger determinant on the child's gender attitudes and behaviour. If media representations confirm existing gender norms held by the family, then these are likely to be reinforced in the child's mind. If not, then such representations are likely to be rejected. This suggests that media influences are secondary to other influences, such as family. Moreover, the influence of media on gender development may be exaggerated as significant gender development occurs before the age of four when media influences are weaker. It may therefore be that media influences reinforce existing gender beliefs and norms, rather than create them. This means we cannot assume that the media is responsible for causing gender roles.

Answer 73

Psychological distress that results from an incongruence between one's sex assigned at birth and one's gender identity.

Answer 74

- Brain-sex theory - Genetic factors

Answer 75

The theory assumes that male and female brains are different, and therefore the brain of a transgender individual does not match their biological sex.

Answer 76

The BSTc is a sexually dimorphic structure in the thalamus responsible for emotional responses, larger in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women. The size of the BSTc correlates with preferred sex rather than biological sex.

Answer 77

Zhou et al. (1995) and Kruijver et al. (2000) They found that the number of neurons in the BSTc of trans women was similar to that of females, and vice versa for trans men.

Answer 78

Heylens et al. (2012) found 39% of MZ twins were concordant for gender dysphoria, compared to none of the DZ twins.

Answer 79

This perspective argues that gender identity is 'invented' by societies and that gender dysphoria is a social phenomenon which arises when people are forced to choose to be either a man or a woman.

Answer 80

McClintock (2015) She cited individuals in New Guinea with 5-alpha reductase deficiency which was routinely accepted among this culture that some people are males, some are female and some are 'females-then-males'. 5-alpha reductase deficiency is when males are born with external genitals that appear female but at puberty, because of increases in testosterone, the testes descend and they develop male genitalia.

Answer 81

Stoller (1973) Used clinical interviews and found that males with gender dysphoria had overly close relationships with their mothers, leading to greater female identification. Zucker (2004) found that females with gender dysphoria often experienced paternal rejection in early childhood and unconsciously think if they become males, they might gain acceptance from their father.

Answer 82

- Social constructionism - Psychoanalytical theory - mother-son and father-daughter relationships

Answer 83

Research support for mother-son relationship: The psychoanalytic theory proposed by Ovesey and Person argues that gender dysphoria in males is caused by extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established. The child fantasies of a symbiotic fusion with the mother to relieve anxiety and thus adopts a female gender identity. Zucker et al. (1996) assessed the presence of traits of separation anxiety disorder in boys referred clinically for gender dysphoria. They found that 64% of boys with gender dysphoria also displayed diagnostic traits of separation anxiety. This suggests that some kind of disordered attachment to a mother is a factor in gender dysphoria. Cultural support for a third gender: The social constructionism approach is the idea that gender identity is ‘invented’ by societies and such a notion is supported by many non-Western cultures who challenge the traditional binary classifications of male and female. Third gender is a concept in which individuals are categorised, either by themselves or by society, as neither a man nor a woman. It is also a social category present in societies that recognise three or more genders. The hijras of South Asia are one of the most recognised groups of third gender people. Hijras have legal recognition in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. Further, the fact that increasing numbers of people now describe themselves as non-binary suggests that cultural understanding is only now beginning to 'catch up' with the lived experience of many. This suggests that gender identity (and dysphoria) is best seen as a social construction rather than a biological fact.

Answer 84

Inadequate explanations: Ovesey and Person's explanation does not provide an adequate account of gender dysphoria in biological females as the theory only applies to transgender women. Also, research by Rekers (1986) found that gender dysphoria in those assigned male at birth is more likely to be associated with the absence of the father than the fear of separation from the mother. In other words, gender dysphoria in biological males is more motivated by the lack of a father during the critical period for attachment formation, as opposed to an absent mother.

Answer 85

Other structural differences: Additional evidence suggests there may be other brain / neurological differences associated with gender dysphoria. White matter (the deeper tissues of the brain) is another sexually dimorphic aspect of the brain. There are regional differences in the proportion of white matter in male and female brains. Rametti et al. (2011) analysed the brains of both male and female transgender individuals, crucially before they began hormone treatment as part of gender reassignment. In most cases, the amount and distribution of white matter corresponded more closely to the gender the individuals identified themselves as being rather than their biological sex.

Answer 86

Unreliable methods: In the studies by Kruijver et al. and Zhou et al. the BSTc was examined post-mortem and after transgender individuals had received hormone treatment during gender reassignment treatment. This suggests that differences in the BST may have been an effect of hormone therapy, rather than the cause of gender dysphoria. Therefore, it might explain why their brain sex was more similar to their gender identity rather than their biological sex. Socially sensitive research: Research on gender dysphoria has potential social consequences for individuals represented by the research. Classifying gender dysphoria as a medical category is intended to help people access healthcare and treatment. However, others may object to the label of mental disorder being applied to gender dysphoria. Such diagnostic terms can have a stigmatising effect as classifying trans people as being 'ill' or 'sick’ may lead to prejudice and discrimination.

Gender Flashcards

(110 cards)