Aggression

Question 1

Neural - The limbic system (amygdala)

Answer 1

Amygdala: • Responsible for quickly evaluating the emotional importance of sensory information
and prompting an appropriate response.

Kluver & Bucy - destruction of amygdala in a dominant monkey
caused it to lose its dominant place in the social group.
Monkeys failed to recognise the ‘emotional importance of events’

Question 2

Neural - the limbic system - hippocampus

Answer 2

• Involved in formation
In of LT memories, so animals can compare conditions of current
threat with similar past experience. Impaired hippocampal function may cause the amygdala to respond inappropriately sensory stimul
Boccardi et al - habitually violent offenders exhibited abnormal hippocampal functioning

Question 3

Neural mechanism - serotonin

Answer 3

Typically inhibits the function of the amygdala.
• If an individual has low levels of serotonin:
→ the inhibitory effect is removed
→ the amygdala becomes more active
→ the individual is more likely to respond aggressively
X
• Drugs that reduce serotonin levels increase aggressive behaviour.

• Mann et al gave 35 healthy participants dexfenfluramine (depletes serotonin) and found an increase in hostility and aggression scores on a
questionnaire in males, but not females.

Question 4

Hormonal mechanism - testosterone

Answer 4

Testosterone produces male characteristics • It is thought to be linked to aggressive behaviour for
several reasons:
• Males are generally more aggressive than females Males become more aggressive towards other males at a time in development (21-35) when testosterone
levels are at their highest (Daly and Wilson) Animal castration studies, e.g. Wagner et al - aggression levels in mice decreased following castration, and then increased when the mice were
later injected with testosterone. Studies of prison populations, e.g.

Dabbs et al - measured salivary testosterone in violent and non-violent criminals. Those with highest
levels had a history of violent crimes.

Question 5

Hormonal mechanism - progesterone

Answer 5

There is some evidence that progesterone plays a role in aggressive behaviour in
women. • Levels of progesterone vary throughout the menstrual cycle and are lowest during
and just after menstruation. • Ziomkiewicz et al found a negative correlation between progesterone levels and self-
reported aggression.

Question 6

Research support for neural mechanisms

Answer 6

Pardini et al conducted a longitudinal study whereby participants with varying histories of violence were subjected to MRI scans. The participants with lower amygdala volume exhibited higher levels of aggression and violence, even
when confounding variables were controlled. Rosado et al compared a sample of dogs that had been referred due to their aggressive behaviour towards humans, with a control sample that did not exhibit aggressive behaviour. The aggressive dogs had significantly lower
serotonin levels than the non-aggressive dogs.

Question 7

RS for hormonal mechanisms

Answer 7

For example, Dolan et al found a positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggressive behaviour in a sample of 60 male offenders in UK maximum security hospitals. These men mostly had personality disorders and
histories of impulsively violent behaviour. Further evidence for this link comes from animal studies. For example, there is evidence that during mating season there is an increase in both testosterone
levels and aggressive behaviour in male rhesus monkeys.

Question 8

Biological reductionism

Answer 8

According to this explanation, aggression is the result of neural and hormonal influences alone, however there are studies that contradict this. For example, Albert et al found no correlation between testosterone levels and violent
behaviour among prison inmates. Other psychologists would argue that aggression may be the result of other factors instead. For example, Bandura suggested that aggressive behaviour is
exhibited due to the observation and imitation of violent role models.

Question 9

Genetic factors - twin studies

Answer 9

Coccaro et al - direct physical assault, 50% MZ, 19% DZ

Verbal aggression, 28% MZ, 7% DZ

Question 10

Genetic factors - adoption studies

Answer 10

Hutchins and Mednick -
14,000 adopted males in Denmark, adoptee most likely to become criminal if biological and adoptive parents were. Biological had a greater influence

Question 11

Genetic factors - The MAOA gene

Answer 11

High levels of gene (MAOA-H)
Low levels (MAOA-L)
Caspi et al, boys with MAOA-L more likely to exhibit antisocial behaviour, but only if they had been mistreated as children
Boys with H variant who were maltreated and L variant who weren’t maltreated didn’t display antisocial behaviour

Question 12

Strength - RS for genetics

Answer 12

Miles and Carey, meta analysis 24 twin studies and adoption studies, aggressive antisocial behaviour was a consequence of genetic contributions
Influence of genes increases with time.

Question 13

Strength - MAOA explains gender differences

Answer 13

Niehoff MAOA linked to X chromosome, women inheriting the same gene are unaffected compared to men

Question 14

Weakness of genes - biological determinism

Answer 14

Coccoro et al should be 100%. Zimbardo suggested it’s due to deindividuation

Question 15

Ethnological - adaptive function of aggression

Answer 15

Lorenz - main function of aggression is adaptive
It’s beneficial to survive because a defeated animal is rarely killed just forced to move territory
It establishes dominance

Question 16

Ritualistic aggression

Answer 16

Lorenz, displaying claws and teeth etc
Assess relative strength of opponent before fighting
Appeasement displays - inhibit aggressive behaviour and signal defeat

Question 17

Innate releasing mechanisms and fixed action patterns

Answer 17

Biological structure or process which is activated by a sign (environmental stimulus) that in turn triggers a FAP which is a fixed action pattern which is a sequence of stereotypical preprogrammed behaviours

Question 18

Characteristics of FAPs

Answer 18

• stereotyped
• universal
• unaffected by learning - same for everyone regardless of experience
• ballistic - once triggered can’t be stopped
• single purpose
• responds to specific sign stimulus

Question 19

Key study of ethnological

Answer 19

Tinbergen - presented sticklebacks with a series of wooden models with different shapes. Found that regardless of shape of the model had a red spot (IRM) the sticklebacks would become aggressive and attack it (FAP), FAPs we’re stereotypical l, universal and ballistic

Question 20

Evaluations of ethnological explanation

Answer 20

RS - Kluver and Bucy, amygdala of dominant monkey destroyed, became less aggressive. Has an innate basis supporting IRM

Ignores nurture, FAP has been replaced with behaviour pattern as they can be modified by experience

Goodall observed chimpanzees. Males slaughtered another community in a premeditated fashion not needing an IRM, violence continued despite signals of appeasement

Question 21

Evolutionary explanation

Answer 21

Sexual jealousy - major motivator in males, cause of paternity uncertainty. Men are at risk of cuckoldry which is when a man unknowingly invests his recourses into children that aren’t his leaving him with fewer resources for his owb

Question 22

Mate retention strategies

Answer 22

Wilson and daly identified two strategies

• direct guarding - vigilance over partners behaviour, controlling and restricting autonomy

A negative inducements - issuing threats or consequences of infidelity “I’ll kms if you leave me”

Question 23

Physical violence against partner

Answer 23

Wilson et al found that women who reported mate retention strategies were twice as likely to experience physical violence of these women 73% needed medical attention and 53% said they feared for their lives

Question 24

Evolutionary explanation of bullying

Answer 24

Bullying is a maladaptive behaviour which is the result of poor socialisation or child abuse however could be seen as adaptive

Bullying traits attract females as it shows dominance and protection, wards of potential rivals and makes them less vulnerable to aggression against them

Question 25

Evaluations to the evolutionary explanation

Answer 25

Strength - RS, shackelford et al found a positive correlation between men’s reports of their mate retention behaviours and women’s reports of their physical violence Strength - real world application, professionals can help. Ellis suggests strategies that reward pro social behaviours for these bullies Weakness - biological determinism And ethical implications

Question 26

Frustration aggression hypothesis

Answer 26

Dollard Frustration always leads to aggression and aggression is always a consequence of frustration Seen as a psychological drive Based on the concept of catharsis Getting it off our chest

Question 27

Why aggression isn’t always directed towards frustration

Answer 27

Too abstract Cause may be too powerful Unavailable at the time Lead to displacement

Question 28

F-A hypothesis

Answer 28

Geen gave male university students the task of completing a jigsaw puzzle. • Impossible to solve • Interfering confederate • Insulting confederate • Control group Participants then gave electric shocks to confederate when they made a mistake on another task. Insulted participants gave strongest shocks on average, followed by interfered group, then impossible task. All gave more shocks than control group.

Question 29

The weapon effect

Answer 29

Berkowitz - frustration only causes readiness for aggression. Table of sports equipment of guns. Then gave electric shocks to confeds. Group with guns gave higher electric shocks of 6.07 average compared to 4.67 shocks

Question 30

Evaluations of F-A

Answer 30

Strength - RS, Marcus newhall et al conducted a meta analysis of 49 studies of displaced aggression l. Participants who were provoked but unable to react directly were more likely to retaliate against an innocent party Strength - real world application, berkowitz, could cause weapon debate in USA Weakness - frustration isn’t cathartic, bushman found that participants who vented their anger by hitting a punching bag got more aggressive. Venting doesn’t reduce anger

Question 31

Social psych - SLT

Answer 31

Observational learning and vicarious reinforcement, observe aggressive behaviours and copy if they’re rewarded

Question 32

Self efficacy

Answer 32

Extent at which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal, with each successful outcome the child continues as confidence grows

Question 33

Evaluations of SLT

Answer 33

Strength - RS, Poulin and Boivin, boys 9-12 most aggressive boys were friends with other aggressive boys ‘training grounds for anti social behaviour ‘ Weakness - environmental reductionism Strength - real world application

Question 34

Social psych - deindividuation

Answer 34

Crowd behaviour - We lose restraint Self identity Responsibility Disregard norms Experience less personal guilt

Question 35

Individuated / deindividuated behaviour

Answer 35

Zimbardo - Individuated, rational and conforms to social norms Deindividuated, emotional, impulsive, rejects social norms, irrational, disinhibited Conditions which promote this: Darkness Anonymity Drugs Alcohol Uniforms Masks Disguises

Question 36

Research into deindividuation

Answer 36

Zimbardo Female undergraduates, shocks to confeds as ‘aid learning’ Half in bulky lab coats, hoods and no name tags in separate cubicles Others in normal clothes, same room with name tags First more likely to give shocks and for longer

Question 37

Evaluations of deindividuation

Answer 37

Strength - RS, Dodd ‘if you could do anything without being detected or held responsible what would you do?’ 36% antisocial 26% criminal acts 9% pro social Strength - lack of support, Gergen deviance in the dark Weakness - de individuation doesn’t necessarily lead to aggression, Johnson and downing, females fake electric shocks, some dressed as KKK, nurses or normal, KKK more and harder shocks

Question 38

Institutional aggression

Answer 38

Dispositional - importation model, Irwin and cressey prisoners bring violent pasts with them, inmates import rheir values etc to navigate them through an unfamiliar environment Dispositional research - De Lisi et al, 813 juvie delinquents had dispositional factors like childhood trauma more likely to be suicidal and violent than control Situational - deprivation model, Clemmer, institutional aggression is the product of stressful and oppressive conditions. Caused by being deprived of freedom, heterosexual activity, goods and services safety and independence. Situational research - Steiner, inmate on inmate violence more common in female staff prisons and overcrowding

Question 39

Evaluations of institutional aggression

Answer 39

Strength - RS Dispositional, Camp and Gaes 561 male inmates, some in low security and some in high 33% in low and 36% in high committed misconduct which isn’t significant different Strength - RS situational, Cunningham et al, 35 inmate homicides, motivations linked to clemmers, drugs sexual activity and personal possessions arguments being main causes Weakness - interactionist model, Jiang and Fisher- Giorlando suggest importation is better for inmate on inmate and deprivation is better for inmate on staff violence.

Question 41

Excess tv viewing

Answer 41

Robertson et al. Measured tv viewing hours of 2000 new zealenders at regular intervals up to 26 years old. Good predictor of aggressive behaviour (criminal convictions)

Question 42

Computer games

Answer 42

De lisi et al 227 juvi offenders were interviewed about aggression and computer game playing. Offenders behaviour correlated with how often they played computer games and enjoyed them. Bartholow and Anderson - violent or non violent for ten minutes Taylor competitive reaction time task in which they blasted white noise at children.

Question 43

Evaluations of media influence

Answer 43

Methodology issues, Taylor competitive reaction time task is unrealistic. Ferguson and Kilburn found in stidies of aggression that there wasn’t a correlation for media influence Game difficulty may be more important than content due to frustration

Question 44

Media influences

Answer 44

Desensitisation - more they watch more accepted it becomes, less anxious about violence reduction in physiological arousal Disinhibition - when violence is left unpunished our inhibitions against it are lessened Cognitive priming - violent media provides us with a script of how things will play out. Primes us to be aggressive, cues in a situation cause us to be aggressive.

Question 45

Disinhibition

Answer 45

Goranson, boxing match ended in death or one with no consequences. One without consequences were more likely to be aggressive

Question 46

Desensitisation

Answer 46

Weisz and Earls, straw dogs, rape film or not, fake trial of rape afterwards. Those who watched the film were less likely to have victim sympathy and more likely to say the man’s innocent

Question 47

Cognitive priming

Answer 47

Fischer and greitemeyer - males listened to bad song about women compared to neutral lyrics. Recalled more negative things about women. More aggressive towards women

Question 48

Evaluations of DDC

Answer 48

Real world application - disinhibition Incomplete explanation - as media has increased surely violence would too yet the opposite has occurred Video games are cathartic - ketenbaum, self reports of young males played them when feeling wound up and felt relaxed after playing.