aggression

Question 1

neural mechanisms in aggression: limbic system

Answer 1

limbic system = subcortical structures in the brain (including the hypothalamus and amygdala) thought to be closely involved in regulating emotional behaviour including aggression

Papez and Maclean linked the limbic system to emotions e.g aggression. The system includes the hypothalamus, amygdala and parts of the hippocampus.

Question 2

Amygdala:

Answer 2

The more reactive the amygdala is to environmental threats the more likely that aggression will be shown

Gospic et al used brain scans (fMRI) with pts in a lab based game that provoked aggression

Aggressive reactions were associated with a fast and heightened response by the Amygdala

Benzodiazepine (reduced arousal of the automatic nervous system) taken before the game decreased amygdala activity and decreased aggression.

Question 3

Orbitofrontal cortex and serotonin
Low levels, increased aggression:

Answer 3

Normal levels of serotonin in the orbitofrontal cortex inhibit neurons (reduced firing) and are linked to greater behavioural self-control.

Decreased serotonin disturbs this mechanism, reduces self-control and increases impulsive behaviours, including aggression (Denson et al. 2012).

Virkkunen et al. (1994) found lower levels of serotonin metabolite 5-HIAA in violent impulsive offenders compared with non-impulsive offenders..

Question 4

Hormonal mechanisms in aggression: testosterone
higher in men and linked to aggression:

Answer 4

Testosterone helps regulate social behaviour via its influence on brain areas involved in aggression.

Males are more aggressive towards other males at 20+ years,
when testosterone levels peak (Daly and Wilson 1998).

Dolan et al. (2001) found a positive correlation between testosterone and aggression in male offenders with histories of impulsively violent behaviour..

Question 5

Animal studies show aggression linked to testosterone:

Answer 5

Removing testes (castration) reduces aggression in
many species, injecting testosterone restores aggressive
linked to behaviour (Giammanco et al. 2005)..

Question 6

Progesterone:
low levels linked to aggression in women:

Answer 6

Progesterone levels vary in menstrual cycle (lowest during and just after menstruation). lower levels linked with increased aggression in females

Negative correlation between progesterone levels and self-reported aggression (Ziomkiewicz et al. 2012)..

Question 7

One limitation of neural mechanisms in aggression is that non limbic brain structures are also involved:

Answer 7

limbic structures function jointlywith orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) which is not part of the limbic system. the OFC is involved in impulse regulation and inhibition of aggression
According to Coccaro et al (2007) OFC activity is reduced in psychiatric disorders which feature aggression. This reduced activity disrupts the OFCs impulse control function, which in turn causes aggressive behaviour
this shows that the neural regulation of aggression is more complex than theories focusing on the amygdala suggest.

Question 8

One strength of neural mechanisms in aggression is the research into the effect of drugs on serotonin:

Answer 8

Berman et al (2009) pts took part in a lab-based game, giving and receiving electric shocks in response to provocation

pts who took paroxetine (enhances serotonin and therefore reduces aggression) consistently gave fewer and less intense shocks than a placebo group

this study is evidence of a casual link between serotonin and aggression.

Question 9

One strength of hormonal mechanisms in aggression is support from research with non human animals + CP:

Answer 9

Giammanco et als review confirms the role of testosterone e.g increase in testosterone and aggression in male rhesus macaque monkeys during mating season

in rats, castration of males reduces testosterone and mouse killing. injecting female rats with testosterone increases both

these findings show that testosterone plays a key role in aggression in a range of animal species

CP:
hormonal mechanisms in human and mammalian aggression are likely to be similar. however, aggression in humans is more complex than in other mammals. Carré and Mehta’s findings about cortisol apply only to humans and cognitive factors are also involved. therefore animal studies can help us understand hormonal influences on aggression but findings must be treated cautiously because human aggression is more complex.

Question 10

One limitation of hormonal mechanisms in aggression is that evidence linking testosterone and aggression is mixed (cortisol)

Answer 10

Carre and Mehtas dual hormone hypothesis suggests that high levels of testosterone lead to aggression but only when cortisol levels are low.

high cortisol blocks testosterone’s influence on aggression. cortisol is a hormone that is key to the body’s chronic stress response

therefore the combined activity of testosterone and cortisol may be a better predictor of aggression than either hormone alone.

Question 11

twin studies:

Answer 11

Coccaro et al (1997) studied adult male monozygotic and dizygotic twins

for direct physical aggression, the researchers found concordance rates of 50% of MZ twins and 19% for DZ twins

for verbal aggression figures were 28% for MZ and 7% for DZ.

Question 12

adoption studies:

Answer 12

Similarities in aggressive behavior between an adopted child and biological parents suggest genetic influences are operating, but similarities with adoptive parents suggest environmental factors

Rhee and Waldmans (2002) meta- analysis of adoption studies found genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression.

Question 13

MAOA gene is linked to low serotonin:

Answer 13

the MAOA gene controls production of the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which regulates serotonin (linked to impulsive aggression

genes come in different variants. low activity variant of MAOA is linked to increased aggression.

Question 14

MAOA L variant:

Answer 14

nicknamed the ‘warrior gene’

MAOA-L variant possessed by 56% of New Zealand Maori males (34% Caucasians)

Maori warriors were historically ferocious, hence the nickname (Lea and Chambers 2007).

Question 15

MAOA-L linked with extreme violence in a Dutch family:

Answer 15

Brunner et al 1993 studied 28 male family members repeatedly involved in impulsively violent crime behaviours e.g rape, assault, murder etc

The researchers found that these individuals had a defective version of the MAOA gene, leading to low levels of MAOA enzyme, which is responsible for breaking down neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine. (This made them very aggressive)
these men had both abnormally low levels of the enzyme MAOA in their brains and the MAOA L variant (brunner syndrome).

Question 16

Gene-environment (GXE) interactions:

Answer 16

Frazzetto et al 2007 found an association between antisocial aggression and the MAOA L gene in adult males but only those who experienced significant trauma (e.g physical abuse) during the 15 years of life

those with no trauma were not especially aggressive as adults even if they possessed the MAOA L gene variant

this is strong evidence of a gene-environment interaction (sometimes called diathesis-stress).

Question 17

One strength is support for the role of the MAOA gene + CP

Answer 17

Research shows that the low activity variant is associated with high aggression. Mertins et al (2011) found the converse is also true

male participants with the high activity MAOA gene variant were more cooperative and less aggressive in a money-distributing game

this finding supports the relationship between MAOA gene activity and aggression, increasing the validity of this genetic theory of aggression

CP:
However, Mertins et al also found that even pts with low activity MAOA variant behaved co-operatively when they knew others were also being co-operative. conformity to social norms played a role in their behaviour

therefore genes do not operate in a vacuum but are influenced by environmental factors that are at least as important in aggression.

Question 18

One limitation is that the mechanism linking MAOA and serotinin is unclear

Answer 18

Research shows aggression is linked with low serotinin, but we expect people with MAOA-L to have high serotonin

this is because low activity enzyme means serotonin is not deactivated (the normal outcome), so should leave more serotonin for synaptic transmission. Thus it may be better viewed as disrupted activity of serontonin in people who possess the MAOA L variant

this shows that the relationship between the MAOA gene, serotonin, and aggression is not yet fully understood.

Question 19

another limitation is that twin studies may lack validity

Answer 19

both individuals in a twin pair share the same environment (raised together). But DZ twins may not share environments to the same extent that MZs share theirs

the equal environments assumption may be wrong because one aspect of the environment is the way twins are treated by others, which differs between twins
this means that concordance rates are inflated and genetic influences on aggression may not be as great as twin studies suggest.

Question 20

another limitation of MAOA - nature nurture

Answer 20

nature and nurture debate = evidence shows that genes are direct causes of aggression. this includes twin and adoption studies, research on the MAOA gene and animal studies

on the other hand, environmental factors are also important. this is supported by criticisms of twin studies and research into early trauma. environment affects whether genes are expressed

thus it could be argued that environmental factors are more important because, though we may have predispositions, these are only expressed in certain conditions.

Question 21

The Ethological explanation of aggression

Answer 21

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Question 22

aggression is adaptive - to reduce competition and establish dominance

Answer 22

aggression is beneficial to survival because it:

1 - reduces competition as a defeated animal is rarely killed but forced into territory elsewhere, reducing competition pressure
2 - Establishes dominance hierarchies. a male chimpanzee’s dominance gives him special status (mating rights)

Pettit et al observed how aggression in children at play led to dominance hierarchies - this is adaptive (therefore naturally selected) because dominance over others brings benefits.

Question 23

Ritualistic - a series of behaviours carried out in a set order

Answer 23

Lorenz (1966) observed that most intra species aggression consisted of ritualistic signalling e.g displaying teeth and rarely causing physical damage

intra species aggression usually ends with an appeasement display - indicates acceptance of defeat and inhibits aggression in the winner, preventing injury to the loser

this is adaptive because every aggressive encounter ending with the death of an individual could threaten existence of species.

Question 24

IRM - triggered by an environmental stimulus

Answer 24

an innate releasing mechanism (IRM) is an inbuilt physiological process or structure (e.g network of neurons in the brain)

an environmental stimulus e.g facial expression activates the IRM. it triggers or ‘releases’ a fixed actional pattern (FAP).

Question 25

FAP - universal and ballistic

Answer 25

a FAP is a sequence of behaviours triggered by an IRM Lea argues that a FAP is a relatively unchanging behavioural sequence (ritualistic) found in every individual of a species (universal) and follows an inevitable course which cannot be altered before it is completed (ballistic).

Question 26

Tinbergen (1951) male stickleback and aggression: procedure

Answer 26

another male entering a sticklebacks territory in the mating season initiates a sequence of aggressive behaviours (a FAP) - red on the competing males underbelly is the stimulus that triggers the IRM that in turn leads to the aggressive FAP Tinbergen presented male sticklebacks with a series of wooden models of shapes.

Question 27

Tinbergen (1951) male stickleback and aggression: findings

Answer 27

if the model had a red underside the stickleback would aggressively display and attack it - but no red meant no aggression tinbergen also found the aggressive FAP did not change from one encounter to another - once triggered it always ran its course to completion without any further stimulus.

Question 28

One strength of ethnological explanation (research support / south vs north)

Answer 28

Genetic evidence is strong e.g Brunner et al (1993) showed a link between MAOA-L gene and aggression, twin studies and adoption studies also suggest a genetic component we can see aggression as adaptive behaviour e.g Wilson and Daly and therefore genetically based this suggests the ethological approach is correct in claiming that aggression is genetically determined, heritable and adaptive CP: Nisbett (1993) found homicides based on reactive aggression (responding to threat) were more common in the Southern US than in the north 'culture of honour' less prevalent in the north therefore culture can override innate influences, which is hard for ethological theory to explain.

Question 29

One limitation of ethnological explanation (not always ritualistic)

Answer 29

same species aggression is not always just ritualistic = Goodall (2010) observed male chimps killing members of another community - the aggression was systematic the killing continued even when victims were offering appeasement signals, which did not inhibit aggressive behaviour as would be predicted by ethological theory this challenges the ethological view that same species aggression has evolved into a self limiting and relatively harmless ritual.

Question 30

another limitation of ethnological explanation (FAP outdated)

Answer 30

Lorenz's view of FAP is outdated = Hunt (1973) argued that FAPs are influenced by environment and learning. the sequence of behaviours in an aggressive FAP varies between individuals and situations FAPs are not fixed but modifiable by experience, so ethologists prefer the term 'modal behaviour pattern' to reflect this flexibility therefore patterns of aggressive behaviour are much more flexible than Lorenz thought, especially in humans.

Question 31

evolutionary explanations of human aggression

Answer 31

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Question 32

anti cuckoldry behaviours naturally selected:

Answer 32

Cuckoldry (having to raise another mans offspring) is a waste of a males resources because it contributes to survival of a rivals genes and leaves the 'father' with fewer resources to invest in his own future offspring men in our evolutionary past who could avoid cuckoldry were more reproductively successful - so psychological mechanisms evolved to increase anti-cuckoldry behaviours in men e.g sexual jealousy is stronger in men this drives aggressive mate retention strategies men use to prevent partners from 'straying' - these were adaptive in our evolutionary history.

Question 33

mate retention strategies:

Answer 33

Wilson and Daly (1996) identify two major mate retention strategies involved in aggression: - direct guarding - a man's vigilance over a partners behaviour e.g checking who they've been seeing - negative inducements - e.g threats of consequences for infidelity e.g ill kill myself if you leave me.

Question 34

mate retention strategies linked to physical violence:

Answer 34

Wilson et al found women who reported mate retention strategies in partners were twice as likely to experience physical violence at their hands - 73% of these women required medical attention and 53% said they feared for their lives.

Question 35

bullying may be an adaptive form of aggression:

Answer 35

bul;ying is a power imbalance in which a stronger individual uses aggression repeatedly against a weaker person researchers have viewed bullying as a maladaptive behaviour e.g poor social skills or childhood abuse - but evolutionary ancestors may have used it to increase chances of survival by creating reproduction opportunities.

Question 36

In men , bullying ensures access to females and reduces threats from males:

Answer 36

in men bullying suggests dominance, acquisition of resources, strength - and also wards off potential rivals these characteristics deliver the ideal combination of access to more females and minimal threat from competing males - so aggressive bullying was naturally selected because these males would have reproductive success also benefits the bullys health because other children avoid them so they experience less aggression and stress (Sapolsky).

Question 37

In women , bullying helps secure partner's fidelity:

Answer 37

female bullying often takes place within rather than outside a relationship, and is a method of controlling a partner the partner continues to provide resources for future offspring - again, such a behaviour would be naturally selected because it enhanced the woman's reproductive success (Campbell).

Question 38

One strength of evolutionary explanation (explains gender difference)

Answer 38

explaining gender differences in uses of aggression = gender differences could be due to socialisation but some are due to adaptive strategies e.g Campbell 1999 argues physical aggression is not adaptive for a female with offspring this would put a mothers own and her offsprings survival at risk, so a more adaptive strategy is to use verbal aggression - to retain a resource providing partner therefore such arguments can provide support for the evolutionary approach to explaining aggression.

Question 39

One limitation of evolutionary explanation (cultural differences / ‘harmless’)

Answer 39

cultural differences in aggressive behaviour + CP = Aggression is not universal e.g the Kung San people of Africa have very negative views towards the use of aggression it is discouraged from childhood in boys and girls and is rare because it is linked with loss of status within the community (Thomas 1958) therefore, since some cultures do not show aggressiveness, such behaviour may not be necessarily adaptive CP: however there are lots of controversies over how 'harmless' the kung san people rly are e.g richard lee described the homocide rate as surpisingly high for peaceable people such contradictions may be explained by observer bias and also using different samples of people these methodological issues mean that observations by 'outsiders' may not be useful (lacks validity).

Question 40

Another strength of evolutionary explanation (real world application bullying)

Answer 40

real world applications to bullying = Anti-bullying strategies usually address a bullys deficiencies, but bullying is still prevalent so perhaps a better approach is to view bullying as adaptive bullies gain advantages from bullying, so the 'meaningful roles' approach increases the costs of bullying and the rewards of prosocial alternatives therefore viewing bullying as an adaptive behaviour may lead to more effective anti-bullying interventions.

Question 41

Social psychological explanations: Frustration aggression.

Answer 41

The frustration aggression hypothesis = a social psychological theory that argues that aggression is the result of an interaction between an individual's characteristics and features of the situations in which behaviour occurs.

Question 42

frustration always leads to aggression, and aggression is always the result of frustration:

Answer 42

Dollard et al (1939) first formulated the FAH Frustration always leads to aggression Aggression is always the result of frustration This hypothesis is based on the psychodynamic concept of catharsis and views aggression as a psychological drive akin to biological drives such as hunger If our attempt to achieve a goal is blocked by some external factor, we experience frustration This can create an aggressive drive which leads to aggressive behaviour This is cathartic because the aggression created by the frustration is satisfied and reduces the drive and makes further aggression less likely. We feel better for getting it off our chest.

Question 43

aggression may be displaced:

Answer 43

the cause of frustration may be: - abstract (e.g the government) - too powerful and we risk punishment (e.g a teacher who gave you a low grade) - unavailable (e.g the teacher left) so, our aggression is displaced (deflected) onto an alternative - not abstract, weaker, and available (e.g object, pet, sibling etc).

Question 44

what does the weapon effect show?

Answer 44

- that cues make aggression more likely Berkowitz and LePage found once students became frustrated in a lab task, they were more likely to give (fake) electric shocks when they could see a weapon next to them weapon effect shows that frustration only creates a readiness for aggression. cues increase likelihood of actual aggression.

Question 45

Geen (1968) frustration and aggression: procedure

Answer 45

male university students completed a jigsaw puzzle, frustration was manipulated in one of three ways: - for some pts the puzzle was impossible to solve - others ran out of time because another student (confederate) kept interfering - others were insulted by the confederate the pts later had the chance to give (fake) electric shocks to the confederate.

Question 46

Geen (1968) frustration and aggression: findings

Answer 46

insulted pts gave the strongest shocks on average, then the interfered group, then the impossible task group all three groups selected more intense shocks than a (non frustrated) control group Geen found that frustration increased the likelihood and intensity of aggressive behavior, supporting the frustration-aggression hypothesis - particularly when individuals are prevented from achieving their goals..

Question 47

One strength of frustration aggression hypothesis (research support meta analysis)

Answer 47

research support for a key concept of the frustration aggression hypothesis = Marcus Newhall et al (2000) conducted a meta analysis of 49 studies where aggression was directed at a human target other than the one that caused frustration provoked pts who could not retaliate against the original source were more likely to aggress against an innocent target than pts who were not provoked this shows that frustration can lead to aggression against a weaker or more available target.

Question 48

Limitation of frustration aggression hypothesis (not cathartic)

Answer 48

research showing that aggression may not be cathartic = Bushman (2002) found that people who vented anger by repeatedly hitting a punchbag became more aggressive rather than less (doing nothing reduced aggression) using venting to reduce anger is like using petrol to put out a fire. 'the better people feel after venting, the more aggressive they are' (Bushman). this shows that a central assumption of the frustration-aggression hypothesis may not be valid.

Question 49

Limitation of frustration aggression hypothesis + CP (link is complex / wider explanation)

Answer 49

the link between frustration and aggression is complex + CP = frustration does not always lead to aggression and aggression can occur without frustration - the link is not 'automatic' someone who feels frustrated may behave in a range of different ways (e.g. helpless). someone behaving aggressively may have many reasons for doing so this suggests that the frustration-aggression hypothesis is inadequate because it only explains how aggression arises in some situations but not in others CP: Berkowitz (1989) reformulated his theory as negative affect theory - frustration is one of many aversive stimuli (e.g pain) that cause aggression and frustration (and other aversive stimuli) have various effects therefore frustration (negative feelings) can form part of a wider explanation of what causes aggression.

Question 50

social learning theory applied to aggression

Answer 50

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Question 51

direct learning - positive and negative reinforcement:

Answer 51

Banduras SLT acknowledged that aggression can be learned directly through operant conditioning (PR, NR and punishment) for example, a child who angrily snatches a toy learns aggression brings rewards - direct positive reinforcement.

Question 52

indirect learning - observation and vicarious reinforcement

Answer 52

observational learning explains most aggression: - a child observes e.g parents being aggressive - children also observe the consequences of a model's aggressive behaviour - if it is rewarded the child learns aggression can be effective in getting what they want this is vicarious reinforcement - it makes it more likely that a child will imitate the models aggressive behaviour.

Question 53

social learning requires ARMM:

Answer 53

attention - observes notices models aggressive actions Retention - observer remembers model's aggressive behaviour Reproduction - observer repeats behaviour based on memory Motivation - observer imitates behaviours if they have an expectation that behaving aggresively will be rewarding.

Question 54

Self efficacy - increases each time aggression brings rewards

Answer 54

Self efficacy is the extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal a childs confidence in their ability to be aggressive grows as they learn that aggression can bring rewards (e.g child who regularly hits others to get a toy learns they have the motor skills to do so and this ability comes easily to them ).

Question 55

Bandura et (1961) social learning of aggression: procedure

Answer 55

young children individually observed a male or female adult model playing with toys, including a plastic toy called a 'Bobo doll' some children observed the model behaving aggressively towards the doll e.g throwing, kicking etc children were then taken to another room where there was a Bobo doll and other toys including ones the model had used.

Question 56

Bandura et (1961) social learning of aggression: findings

Answer 56

children in the 'aggressive model' condition imitated the behaviour they observed - the closeness of imitation was often a direct copy including specific objects and verbal phrases. Boys were more likely than girls to imitate same sex model children in the 'non aggressive model' condition showed almost no aggression later.

Question 57

one strength of SLT + CP (research support friendships / no similarity)

Answer 57

research support for its explanation of aggression + CP = Poulin et al found that aggressive boys aged between 9-12 formed friendships with other aggressive boys. the friendships mutually reinforced aggression through modelling the boys observed each other successfully using proactive aggression, so they were frequently exposed to models of aggression and its positive consequences these social learning processes made imitation of aggressive behaviour by the boys much more likely, supporting the predictions of SLT CP: however, the study found no similarity between friends for reactive aggression. this was not imitated, perhaps because consequences are unpredictable therefore SLT is limited because it is a relatively weak explanation of reactive aggression.

Question 58

another strength of SLT (helps reduce)

Answer 58

SLT can help reduce aggression = children readily imitate models when they observe them being rewarded for any behaviour (including aggression), especially if they identify with them the same learning processes can reduce aggression e.g children form friendships with children rewarded for being non-aggressive (or can be shown media characters) therefore SLT offers practical steps to reduce the development of aggressive behaviour in children.

Question 59

one limitation of SLT (biological factors)

Answer 59

SLT underestimated influence of biological factors = While SLT emphasizes the role of observation, imitation, and reinforcement in learning aggression, it overlooks innate or genetic influences, such as hormonal factors like testosterone, which has been linked to increased aggressive tendencies. Research, such as studies on twins and the role of brain structures like the amygdala, suggests that biological predispositions significantly contribute to aggression. This limitation means SLT may provide an incomplete explanation of behavior, particularly in cases where aggression arises without observable social modeling or reinforcement..

Question 60

social-psychological explanations: de-individuation

Answer 60

Deindividuation = a psychological state in which an individual loses their personal identity and takes on the identity of a social group when, for example, in a crowd or wearing a uniform. the result may be decreased concern about the evaluation of others.

Question 61

Deindividuation explains crowd behaviour and aggression:

Answer 61

Le bon (1895) argued when we join a crowd, we lose restraint, self identity and responsibility (this is deindividuation). So we experience less personal guilt at being aggressive, and therefore act more aggressively.

Question 62

De individuation refers to reduced sense of personal responsibility:

Answer 62

Zimbardo (1969) argued our behaviour is usually individuated (rational, conforms to norms) but when de - individuated (e.g part of a crowd) we lose self awareness, stop monitoring our behaviour, ignore social norms de-individuated behaviour is irrational, impulsive, disinhibited, anti-normative.

Question 63

Anonymity is a major condition of de-individuation:

Answer 63

several conditions of de-individuation promote aggression (e.g darkness, uniform) - a major one is anonymity we have less fear of retribution because we are unidentifiable in a crowd - the bigger the crowd, the greater the anonymity anonymity provides fewer opportunities for others to judge us negatively.

Question 64

Self awareness is reduced:

Answer 64

Prentice Dunn and Rogers (1982) argue that anonymity reduces two types of self awareness: private self awareness - attention to our own feelings is reduced because it is focused outwards on events around us public self awareness - reduced because we realise we are anonymous and our behaviour is less likely to be judged by others so we become less acountable for our aggressive actions.

Question 65

Dodd (1985) student de individuation: procedure

Answer 65

Dodd asked 229 psychology students: 'if you could do anything humanly possible with complete assurance that you would not be detected or held responsible, what would you do?' students knew their answers were anonymous three independent raters who did not know the hypothesis decided which categories of prosocial or antisocial behaviour the reponses belonged to.

Question 66

Dodd (1985) student de individuation: findings

Answer 66

36% of responses involved a form of antisocial behaiour and 26% actual criminal acts (most common was 'rob a bank') only 9% of responses were prosocial behaviours e.g helping people in terms of how people imagine they would behave, this study demonstrates a link between anonymity, de individuation and aggressive behaviour.

Question 67

one strength of deindividuation ()

Answer 67

research support for de-individuation + CP = Douglas and McCarty (2001) found that the most aggressive messages posted on social media were from people who hid their real identities this is a common behaviour of online 'trolls' and has been implicated in high profile cases of self harm and even suicide this supports a link between aggresisve behaviour and anonymity, a key element of de-individuation CP: Gergen et al told pts in a darkened room they could do what they liked and would never meet again. they soon started touching and kissing. in a second study they were told they would meet and there was much less kissing/touching therefore de individuation may not lead to aggression.

Question 68

Another strength of deindividuation (explains baiting)

Answer 68

de individuation can explain 'baiting crowds' = Mann (1981) identified 21 newspaper reports of baiting crowds encouraging suicidal people to jump from buildings these events all were in darkness, the crowds were large and distant from the 'jumper' - all conditions predicted to lead to de individuation and aggressive behaviour therefore there is some validity to the idea that a large group can become aggressive in a de individuated 'faceless crowd'.

Question 69

another limitation of deindividuation (nature vs nurture)

Answer 69

nature vs nurture debate = de individuation highlights nurture factors in aggression (whatever reduces private and public awareness). people who are not usually aggressive become so in a crowd however, nature plays an important role in causing aggression (genetic, ethological, evolutionary). people are in aggressive crowds are because the situation makes them stressed therefore it could be argued that de individuation is a less powerful influence on behaviour than factors related to nature, even in crowds.

Question 70

institutional aggression in the context of prisons

Answer 70

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Question 71

dispositional explanation - importation model institutional aggression results from characteristics of prisoners:

Answer 71

Irwin and Cressey (1962) argued that inmates bring with them (import) into prisons a subculture typical of criminality - including beliefs, norms, attitudes, learning experiences and personal characteristics e.g gender and ethnicity inmates import these characteristics which then influence their use of aggression to establish power, status and access to resources aggresison is the result of individual characteristics of inmates and not of the prison environment.

Question 72

prisoner characteristics include anger and traumatic experiences:

Answer 72

DeLisi et al studied juvenile delinquents in Californian institutions who imported many different negative backgrounds for example, childhood trauma, anger, histories of substance abuse and violent behaviour.

Question 73

outcomes include self harm and prisoner violence:

Answer 73

The Delisi et al study compared two groups of inmates - one group with negative characteristics they were importing into the prison and a control group without such characteristics the 'negative' inmates were more likely to engage in suicidal activity, sexual misconduct and acts of physical aggression.

Question 74

situational explanation model - deprivation model institutional aggression due to stress created by prison environment itself:

Answer 74

Clemmer (1958) argued that harsh prison conditions cause stress for inmates who cope by behaving aggressively aggression results from being deprived of freedom, material goods etc. it is made worse by an unpredictable prison regime that regularly uses 'lock ups' to control behaviour. this reduces access to goods e.g tv even further aggression becomes an adaptive solution to deprivation.

Question 75

harsh conditions include psychological and physical factors:

Answer 75

psychological factors e.g deprivation of freedom, independence and heterosexual intimacy physical factors e.g deprivation of material goods increases aggressive competition amongst inmates.

Question 76

prison level factors are independent of prisons' dispositions

Answer 76

Steiner investigated factors predicting aggression in 512 US prisons - inmate-on-inmate violence was more common in prisons where there was a higher proportion of female staff, overcrowing and more inmates in protective custody these are prison-level factors because they are independent of individual characteristics of prisoners - they reliably predicted aggressive behaviour in line with the deprivation model.

Question 77

one strength of the importation model is research support

Answer 77

Camp and Gaes 205 found no significant difference in aggression over two years between inmates randomly placed in low (33%) and high security prisons (36%) the researchers concluded that features of the prison environment are less important predictors of aggressive behaviour than characteristics of inmates this is strong evidence for importation because there was random allocation of inmates.

Question 78

one limitation of the importation model is that it ignores key factors

Answer 78

Dilulio claims that the model ignores other factors that influence prisoners' behaviour, such as the prison officers and the way in which the prison is run Dilulio's administrative control model (ACM) suggests that poorly managed prisoners have the worst violence - weak leadership, distant staff and few educational opportunities therefore, importation is an inadequate explanation because institutional factors are probably more important than inmate characteristics.

Question 79

one strength of the deprivation model is research support

Answer 79

Cunningham et al found that inmate homicides in texas prisons were linked to deprivations identified in Clemmers model many homicides followed arguments between cell sharing inmates where 'boundaries' were crossed e.g arguments over sexual activity, drugs etc these are factors identified by the deprivation model, so the findings support the models validity.

Question 80

one limitation is research contradicting the deprivation model

Answer 80

the deprivation model predicts that a lack of heterosexual contact should lead to aggression in prisons Hensley et al studied two US prisons, and found no reduced aggression in prisoners who had conjugal visits this suggests that situational factors do not substantially affect prison violence.

Question 81

media influences on aggression

Answer 81

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Question 82

'Excessive' TV viewing linked to aggression:

Answer 82

Hours watching TV in childhood associated with adult convictions for aggressive and violent crimes (Robertson el. 2013 - followed 1000 New Zealanders). Additionally the study found watching TV was also associated with reduced social interaction and poorer educational achievement. Therefore link to aggression may be indirect (e.g. due to reduced social interaction)..

Question 83

Violent film content is the most direct media influence:

Answer 83

Bandura et al. (1963) replicated their earlier Bobo doll study but this time children watched a film of an adult model beating the doll. Children again imitated the model's behaviour closely, demonstrating that social learning can operate through media as well as face-to-face..

Question 84

TV/film effects on aggression not strong:

Answer 84

A meta-analysis of about 200 studies found a significant positive correlation between viewing TV/film violence and antisocial behaviour (Paik and Comstock 1994). However TV/film violence accounted for only 1-10% of variance in children's aggressive behaviour, suggesting a minor effect on aggression for TV and film compared with other sources..

Question 85

Computer games may have a powerful effect:

Answer 85

Evidence that computer games have a more powerful effect than traditional screen-based media because: -Game player is active (viewers are passive). -Game-playing is directly rewarding (operant conditioning).

Question 86

Computer games - lab experiments:

Answer 86

For ethical reasons participants are not exposed to violence. Therefore studies use Taylor competitive reaction time task. (TCRTT), giving blasts of white noise at chosen volumes to (non-existent) opponent. Bartholow and Anderson (2002) found that students playing violent game (Mortal Kombat) for ten minutes gave higher volumes of white noise than students who played nonviolent golfing game..

Question 87

Computer games - correlational studies.

Answer 87

Several measures of aggression are positively correlated with time spent playing violent games (eg. in juvenile offenders, DeLisi et al. 2013). The link is so well-established that (in Delisi et al's view) aggression should be considered a public health issue and computer game violence a risk factor..

Question 88

One limitation is that aggression is defined in various ways + CP:

Answer 88

Operationalised is violent behaviour, volume of white noise, criminal convictions. But although all violence is aggression not all aggression is violence and not all aggression or violence is necessarily criminal - affects depend on definitions. This variation and definitions means that the findings of studies are hard to compare. CP Meta analysis help overcome this, e.g. Anderson et al (2010) included 136 studies using different definitions and found increases in aggression linked to violent computer games. Therefore, meta analysis that include various definitions of aggression are valid method from uncovering the effect of media on aggression..

Question 89

Another limitation of media influences is the many unsupported conclusions.

Answer 89

Many studies are methodologically week and meta analysis sometimes includes poor quality studies. Many studies a correlation (no cause-and-effect) and experimental studies lack external validity (unrealistic measures of aggression so cannot be generalised). Therefore, some researchers may be guilty of drawing premature conclusions based on findings that lack validity..

Question 90

One strength of media influences is that SLT is a convincing theoretical framework.

Answer 90

Anderson et al. (2017) note that we accept that exposure to aggression at home is harmful so logically media are important sources of social learning. Children are more likely to imitate aggressive behaviours when they see them rewarded (vicarious reinforcement) especially when children identify with onscreen characters. This is a key feature of science - having a unifying explanation to account for findings..

Question 91

Desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming

Answer 91

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Question 92

role of desensitisation - reduced physiological reponse (SNS arousal):

Answer 92

normally when we witness aggression we experience arousal associated with the sympathetic nerous system (increased heart rate, blood pressure, sweat activity etc) but when children repeatedly view aggression on TV or play violent computer games the physiological effects are reduced (desensitisation) i.e, a stimulus that is usually aversive has a lesser impact.

Question 93

role of desensitisation - reduced psychological response:

Answer 93

repeated expore to violent media promotes a belief that aggression to resolve conflict is socially acceptable. so negative attitudes towards violence weaken, less empathy is felt for victims, etc (Funk et al 2004) Weisz and Earls (1995) shows pts the film 'Straw Dogs' (which contains a graphic rape scene). Males showed greater acceptance of rape myths after watching mock rape trial (compared with male viewers of non violent film). they also showed less empathy to victim and were less likely to find defendant guilty (no similar effect for female pts).

Question 94

role of disinhibition - exposure to violent media changes usual restraints:

Answer 94

most people believe violence and aggression are antisocial - so there are strong social and psychological restraints against unsing aggression to resolve conflict violent media gives aggressive behaviour social approval, especially where effects on victims are minimised the usual restrainst on individuals are loosened (disinhibited) after exposure to violent media.

Question 95

disinhibition enhanced if aggression is rewarded:

Answer 95

computer games often show violence being rewarded at the same time as its consequences are minimised or justified such rewards strengthen new social norms in the viewer.

Question 96

role of cognitive priming - a 'script' learned about how to behave to aggressive cues:

Answer 96

repeated experience of aggressive media can provide us with a 'script' about how violent situations may 'play out' Huesmann (1998) argues that this script is stored in memory so we become 'ready' (primed) to be aggressive this is an automatic process because a script can direct out behaviour without us being aware of it the script is triggered when we encounter cues in a situation that we percieve as aggressive it primes their cognitive networks related to aggression, making them more likely to interpret situations as hostile and respond aggressively..

Question 97

role of cognitive priming - songs with aggressive lyrics may trigger violent behaviour:

Answer 97

Fischer and Greitemeyers (2006) male pts heard songs featuring aggressively derogatory lyrics about women compared with when they listened to neutral lyrics, pts later recalled more negative qualities about women and behaved more aggressively towards a female confederate. similar results with female pts and 'men hating lyrics'.

Question 98

One strength of desensitisation is research support:

Answer 98

Krahe et al showed violent and non violent films while measuring physiologuical arousal (skin conductance) habitual viewers of violent media showed lower arousal and gave louder bursts of white noise to a confederate without being provoked (proactive aggression) this lower arousal in violent media users reflects desensitisation to the effects of violence, and it was also linked to greater willingness to be aggressive.

Question 99

One limitation of desensitisation is that it cannot explain some aggression:

Answer 99

Krahe et als study did not link media viewing and arousal with provoked (reactive) aggression catharsis may explain this - viewing violent media is a safety valve, releasing aggressive impulses without violence therefore, not all aggression is the result of desensitisation and alternative explanations may be more valid.

Question 100

One strength of disinhibition is research support:

Answer 100

Berkowitz and Alioto found people who saw a film showing aggression as vengeance gave more shocks to a confederate media violence may disinhibit aggression if presented as justified/socially acceptable (as in the case of vengeance) this demonstrates the link between removal of social constraints and subsequent aggressive behaviour.

Question 101

Another strength of disinhibition is that it can explain cartoon violence:

Answer 101

children do not learn specific aggressive behaviours from cartoon models (e.g head spinning round) they learn that aggression is acceptable (socially normative), especially of it goes unpunished therefore disinhibition explains how cartoon aggression can lead to aggression in those who observe it.

Question 102

One strength of cognitive priming is real world application:

Answer 102

real world violent situations depend on interaction of environmental cues, which depends on cognitive scripts stored in memory Bushman and Anderson claim someone who watches violent media stores aggressive scripts more readily, so they interpret cues as aggressive this suggests that interventions could potentially reduce aggressive behaviour by challenging hostile cognitive bias.

Question 103

One limitation of cognitve priming is confouding variables:

Answer 103

violent video games tend to be more complex in gameplay than non violent games, so complexity is a confounding variable (complexity not violence causes priming effect) Zendle et al found that when complexity was controlled, the priming effects of violent video games disappeared therefore, the supportive findings of studies into priming may be partly due to confounding variables.