Aggression Flashcards

Question

What were the results of the bobo doll studies?

Answer 1

1. Aggressive group participants reproduced physical & verbal aggression used by model2. Boys produced more physical aggression3. Participants more likely to imitate same-sex model4. Participants were shocked & surprised at female model displaying physical & verbal aggression

Answer 2

That learning can take place by observation (supports SLT) as reseach demonstates children will imitate behaviour of others in absence of reward/reinforcement. Children more likely to learn from same sex models (gender differences of aggressive behaviours being imitated)

Answer 3

Found that children who saw the model being rewarded for aggressive acts showed a high level of aggression in their own play. Those who saw the model being punished showed a low level of aggression in their play. This showed learning by vicarious reinforcement.

Answer 4

He wanted to find out if punishment had prevented learning or punishment prevented performance of the behaviour. He repeated the study into the role of punishment, but hen offered rewards to all the children for performing the model's aggressive behaviours. He found the latter to be true, as when offered rewards all three groups showed the same level of imitation.

Answer 5

It is possible to control extraneous variables, such as making sure that children are matched on aggressiveness so that you can be more certain that it is the IV that caused the aggression shown.

Answer 6

Reducing behaviour to a simple set of variables may make it meaningless, so we can't really relate the findings to everyday life- aggression has multiple causes. A lab experiment is a contrived experiment & children may not behave as they normally do.

Answer 7

1. American culture is more aggressive than some cultures, so their may be a cultural bias2. Participants are children so may not be relevant to adolescent or adult behaviour3. Middle-class children used, and they were at Stanford which is a high status and prestigious uni, so can't generalise tow ider society.

Answer 8

Quantitative data was collected, for example number of times a child imitated specific acts of violence.

Answer 9

Makes it easier to analyse the data because you can directly compare children in the different conditions. Using such data you can draw a bar char, and do statistical tests to determine if the difference is significant.

Answer 10

Doesn't explain why some children did imitate the model whilst others didn't, which could have possibly be found by interview. It also could mask certain trends, for example there were occasions where the children with the aggressive model was less aggressive than the children with the non-aggressive model.

Answer 11

It suggests that aggression can be learned, but there is some evidence that levels of aggression may be innate as the boys were more aggressive than the girls.

Answer 12

1. They taught children to become more aggressive and deliberately provoked them2. The children may have been alarmed watching an aggressive models3. Issues with informed consent with children

Answer 13

1. People may well not do the same things to a real person as they would a doll2. It doesn't really help understanding long-term aggression

Answer 14

He tried the same study as the bobo doll studies, but used a film where a woman beat a live clown; when the children went into a room with a live clown, they punched, kicked and hit him with hammers just as they had seen in the film.

Answer 15

It is very important in explaining media effects on aggression,

Answer 16

Through observation of role models. They learn the consequences of aggression by watching others being reinforced or punished (vicarious reinforcement). Thus they learn the behaviours and they also learn whether and when such behaviours are worth repeating.

Answer 17

The child must form mental representations of events in their social environment. The child must also represent possible rewards and punishments for their aggressive behaviour in terms of expectancies of future outcomes. When appropriate opportunities arise in the future, the child will display the learned behaviour as long as the expectation of reward is greater than expectation of punishment.

Answer 18

1. Maintenance through direct experience2. Self-efficacy expectancies

Answer 19

If a child is rewarded for a behaviour, they are likely to repeat the same action in similar situations in the future.

Answer 20

IN addition to forming expectancies of the likely outcomes of their aggression, children also develop confidence in their ability to carry out aggressive actions.

Answer 21

He found that daily homicide rates in the US almost always increased in the week following a major boxing match, suggesting viewers were imitating behaviour they watched and social learning is evident in adults as well as children.

Answer 22

1. Supporting research2. Research has high reliability3. Cultural evidence.

Answer 23

1. Lacks ecological validity2. Reductionist3. Demand characteristics4. Ethical issues.

Answer 24

He demonstrated that role models are important in the development of anti-social behaviour (in all genders) and that parents are the most important role model. They found that very aggressive children are raised in homes of high aggression, little affection and little positive feedback.

Answer 25

They found that viewing aggression by cartoon characters produces as much aggression as viewing live or filmed aggressive behaviour by adults.

Answer 26

Because his research was predominately carried out in the laboratory where he had complete control over the IV (whether there was positive/negative reinforcmenet) and the DV. This suggests that if the research was carried out again then the same results could be achieved.

Answer 27

In the Kung San of the Kalahari desert aggression is rare. Parents do not reward or punish aggressive behaviour they try to distract children, whilst the mundugmor show the opposite pattern, in which violence is the norm and status is determined by the amount of aggression shown. Suggests SLT can be applied universally.

Answer 28

He suggests that testosterone has been cited as a primary cause of aggression and other genetic and neuroanatomical structures are involved. SLT does not stress the importance of biological factors, so suggests it is reductionist.

Answer 29

Chermicals stored next to the synapse

Answer 30

When the action potential reaches the axon terminal it hits a little gap. This is known as a synapse. Chemicals are storned next to the synapse (neurotransmitters), when the AP hits the chemicals they were released into the gap and they jump across. This is an all or nothing response.

Answer 31

To cross the synapse enough AP must arrive at the terminal in the axon otherwise there will not be enough transmitter released to fire the impulse across.

Answer 32

Thought to reduce aggression by inhibiting the amygdala and therefore the responses to emotional stimuli that might otherwise lead to an aggressive response.

Answer 33

An increased susceptibility to impulsive behaviour, aggression and even violent suicide.

Answer 34

Gave 35 healthy subjects dexflenfluamine which is know to deplete serotonin. Using a questionnaire to assess hostility and aggression levels, they found that dexflenfluamine treatment in males (but not females) was associated with an increase in hostility and aggression scores.

Answer 35

Using Vervet monkeys, they found that those on high tryptophan diets (which increases serotonin levels in the brain) exhibited decreased levels of aggression and vice versa.

Answer 36

Showed that in animals bred for domestication and docile temperaments show over time increased levels of serotonin.

Answer 37

1. Evidence from non human studies supports the importance of serotonin2. Evidence from antidepressants. If low levels of serotonin are associated with low impulse control and aggressive behaviour, drugs that clinically raise serotonin levels should produce a concurrent lowering in aggression.

Answer 38

Established in clinical trials that antidepressant drugs which elevate serotonin reduce irritability and impulsive aggression.

Answer 39

That low serotonin metabolism (the ability to recycle serotonin at the synaptic clef), which in turns leads to developing a greater number of serotonin recepters.

Answer 40

Found that victims of violent suicide had increased numbers of serotonin receptors in the prefrontal cortex.

Answer 41

Alcohol consumption interferes with the metabolism of serotonin in the brain.

Answer 42

Found a link between alcohol consumption and aggressive behaviour, but this is only correlational, and other factors, such as alcohol depression because of depression (linked to low serotonin levels) confuse the issue.

Answer 43

The link between dopamine and aggression is not as well established but it is thought that increases in dopamine will produce an increase in aggressive behaviour.

Answer 44

Increases in dopamine activity via the use of amphetamines have also been associated with aggressive behaviour.

Answer 45

Antipsychotics, which reduce dopamine activity in the brain, have been shown to reduce aggressive behaviour in violent delinquents.

Answer 46

Evidence is inconclusive about the causal role of dopamine in aggression; recent research suggests that its influence might be as a consequence.

Answer 47

Found in mice that, a reward pathway in the brain becomes engaged in response to an aggressive event that the dopamine is involved in as a positive reinforce in this pathway. Individuals will seek out an aggressive encounter to receive a rewarding sensation.

Answer 48

The levels of serotonin and Dopamine, which are neurotransmitters.

Answer 49

The male sex hormone testosterone is thought to influence aggression from young adulthood onwards due to its action on brain areas involved in controlling aggression.

Answer 50

Tested the salivary testosterone in violent and non-violent criminals. Violent criminals had higher testosterone levels.

Answer 51

Young males who were aggressive when drunk had higher testosterone levels than those who did not act aggressive.

Answer 52

There is inconsistent evidence. Studies which show a positive correlation have used a small sample and have used male prisoners.

Answer 53

He distinguished between aggression and dominance. In humans the influence of testosterone on dominance is likely to be expressed in more varied and subtle ways.

Answer 54

Cortisol appears to have a mediating effect on other aggression-related hormones such as testosterone.

Answer 55

Cortisol increases anxiety and therefore inhibits aggression and increases social withdrawal.

Answer 56

There are low levels of cortisol in habitual violent offenders

Answer 57

There are low levels of cortisol in violent schoolchildren.

Answer 58

He did a four year study of boys with behaviour problems. Boys with low cortisol levels began antisocial acts at a younger age and exhibited three times the number of aggressive symptoms.

Answer 59

The role of testosterone and cortisol.

Answer 60

First identified what is known as 47 XYY karyotype.

Answer 61

It is possible for a male to have an extra Y sex chromonsome making them XYY

Answer 62

Found that of a sample of 314 in a high security hospital, 15 were found to have chromosomal abnormalities, including 9 who had an extra Y chromosome. The incidence of XYY in the general population is 1/100, suggesting that having an extra Y chromosome may have predisposed these men to increased aggressive behaviour.

Answer 63

They would be best kept hospitalised due to an increase likelihood of aggressive behaviour.

Answer 64

That although XYY people are on average taller than the general population, there is no evidence of increased aggression.

Answer 65

That they did not have a higher than average testosterone levels.

Answer 66

Carried out a meta-analysis of twin studies on criminality and found that:Dizygotic twins have concordance rates between 13-22%Monzygotic Twins have concordance rates between 26-51 %

Answer 67

The differences beween dizygotic twins, who grew up in the same environment is likely due to genetics. BUt as monozygotic twins do not show a 100% concordance rate it cannot just be genetics.

Answer 68

They studied the criminal records of all Danish children adopted outside their biological family between 1924 and 1947. They found that having a criminal biological father increased the risk of criminality, but the highest risk was for those with a criminal biological father and a criminal adoptive father.

Answer 69

They studied criminality, rather than aggressiveness and not all crime is violent. IN fact Mednick et all reported that the largest effect in their study was for non violent crime.

Answer 70

Tried to reduce the silver fox to make them esier to breed; found that after 18 generations the animals were tame. The silver fox breeding programme was also able to breed extremely vicious silver foxes.

Answer 71

Found it is possible to breed highly aggressive male and female mice, but this aggressiveness only occurred during mid life.

Answer 72

Because their genes are homologous to those of humans, meaning they produce the same proteins, which are used in a similar way.

Answer 73

Associated with increased aggression. It produces monoamine oxidase, a chemical that is involved int he breakdown of the neurotransmitters serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine in synapses.

Answer 74

It is thought that having too little of the MAO-A gene leads to the brain being flooded with too much serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine, which eventually leads to a lowered sensitivity to these neurotransmitters. Low sensitivity is equivalent to low activity.

Answer 75

Conducted a longitudinal study of 422 males in New Zealand. He studied their history of abuse and criminal convictions, their penchant for violence and any symptoms of antisocial personality disorder. His findings showed that there was a link between MAO-A and the risk of being convicted of a violent crime, but only when participants also suffered abuse as children.

Answer 76

A popular theory was that males who have inherited an extra Y chromosome are more 'male' and therefore more aggressive. However, this has been shown to be incorrect.

Answer 77

A man may unwittingly invest resources in rearing children that are not his own

Answer 78

Restricting a partner's movements

Answer 79

Financial control, threat of violence is they are unfaithful or even so much as look at another man

Answer 80

Wife killing

Answer 81

Partner rape

Answer 82

Emotional response to anticipated loss of affection and/or status

Answer 83

Unfaithfulness of sexual partners.

Answer 84

Male sexual jealousy as a result of real or suspected infidelity.

Answer 85

Verbal aggression and non-lethal physical violence against mates is often similar in men and women, but spousal homicide by women is less frequent and often due to defense against a jealous abusive husband. Young wives/girlfriends are also more likely to be killed them older ones.

Answer 86

In a study of 36 Baltimore spousal homicides, 25 were attributed to jealousy and the wives were the victims in 24 of these cases

Answer 87

In a study of battered women, 57/60 attributed the violence to their husband's extreme jealousy and possessiveness.

Answer 88

In 100 cases of spousal violence, the husbands' frustration over their inability to control their wives and accusations of infidelity were the most reported causal factors.

Answer 89

A man can never be certain that he is the father of his wife's children unless he prevents her having relationships with other men. This can explain why male sexual jealousy is often cited as a cause of domestic violence. Therefore men are always at risk of cuckoldry. The adaptive functions of sexual jealousy would be to deter a mate from sexual infidelity.

Answer 90

That males have a number of strategies that have evolved specifically for the purpose of keeping a mate. These include:1. Restricting their partners autonomy (direct guarding)2. Negative inducements in the form of violence or threats of violence to prevent her from strayingThose who are perceived by their partner to be threatening infidelity are more at risk of violence than those who are not.

Answer 91

That the majority of cases of battered women cite extreme jealousy as the key cause of violence towards them.

Answer 92

That male sexual jealousy is claimed to be the single most common motivation for killings in domestic disputes in the US

Answer 93

That 17% of all cases of murder in the UK are linked to sexual jealousy.

Answer 94

They found that 92% were male-male murders and only 8% female-female murders.

Answer 95

To investigate male retention strategies with married couples.

Answer 96

A survey method, with a sample of 461 men and 560 women in the USA. Male participants answered questions about their use of mate retention techniques, and were assessed on how often they performed each of 26 different types of violent act against their partners. Female PP answered questions concerning their partner's use of retention techniques.

Answer 97

Men's use of intersexual negative inducements and direct guarding was positively correlated with their violence scores. Use of emotional manipulation as a specific tactic appeared to consistently predict men's violence against women. Female results confirmed this trend. Females reported that those who used mate retention strategies were most likely to use violence. Age of relationship made no different.

Answer 98

There findings are consistent with the claim of evolutionary psychology that mate retention strategies are evoked when a particular adaptive problem is faced, in this case the belief that the wife in unfaithful.

Answer 99

Used brain imaging techniques to investigate the activity in the amygdala and hypothalamus whilst subjects imagined scenes depicting sexual infidelity and emotional jealousy. They found that men much greater activity when presented with scenes depicting sexual infidelity in their mate.

Answer 100

Gain territory and resources Defending against attacks: aggression to prevent loss of resources and status necessary for reproductive fitness iInflicting cost on same sex-rivals: aggression between same sex members to aid in the competition for resources and mates Negotiating status and power hierarchies: aggression to gain prestige and dominance among same-sex members Deterring rivals from future aggression: aggression to maintain dominance and fear in othersDeterring mates from infidelity: aggression against opposite-sex members to maintain fidelity of desired long-term mates and ensuring paternity

Answer 101

HUman males cannot risk wasting investment on offspring who are not their own so they should show more jealous violent aggression relating to female fidelity.

Answer 102

If a male is unfaithful the female partner risks losing his time, resources, energy, protection and commitment to her children.

Answer 103

Cross-culturally, human violent aggression and homicide is far more common in males, against other males. Homicide is more common in poor and unmarried men than richer, married ones.

Answer 104

It is more verbal against other women to maintain status and reduce the attractiveness of competitors, especially by using verbal criticism of the physical unattractiveness of other females and their promiscuity to lower their appeal in the eyes of men.

Answer 105

The detection or suspicion of infidelity is a key predictor of partner violence.

Answer 106

That a consequence of men's perception or suspicions of their wives sexual infidelity is partner rape.

Answer 107

That sexual assault of a female by a male partner was directly linked with the perceived risk of her infidelity.

Answer 108

Found that female victims of partner rape were more likely to have engaged in extra-marital sex.

Answer 109

When a women is pregnant with another man's child then the purpose of violence is to terminate the pregnancy and therefore eliminate potential offspring and also leave her free to bear offspring for him.

Answer 110

1. Providing benefits to the women, money, housing etc. 2. Use violence or threats of violenceHowever this could result in the unintended outcome of death.

Answer 111

Men convicted of raping their partners were more likely to have experienced cuckoldry risks prior to their offence compared to men convicted of non-sexual partner abuse.

Answer 112

That frequency of violent acts towards pregnant mates was roughly double than towards those who were not pregnant, with sexual jealousy characterising those who committed violence against their pregnant partners.

Answer 113

Found that women abused while pregnant were more likely to be carrying the child of a man other than her current mate

Answer 114

Nicaraguan study found that half of the sample of pregnant women physically abused by their partners had suffered blows directed at their stomachs to increase the probability of an abortion.

Answer 115

Cannot explain why different people react in different ways to the same problem. Androcentric- women also use mate retention strategies and behave violentlyThere are cultural difference in uxoricide rates and the degree of anxiety felt in response to infidelityDoes it justify violence? ReductionistDeterminist

Answer 116

The evolutionary explanation account for male and female differences in their experiences of infidelity and jealousy as due to different selective pressures.

Answer 117

That groups which pose a threat to the majority are more likely to be discriminated against and subjected to violent action, such as lycning.

Answer 118

That engaging in a painful religious ritual has been favoured by natural selection as it signals commitment to membership, and deters people who are not true believers joining these groups.

Answer 119

. TerritoryGenocide (removal of competition)Mating success (status)Kin selection

Answer 120

Naturalistic observation of the Yanomamo tribe in the Amazon rainforest, frequent fighting between villages over abduction of women. Success in battle lead to high status, so successful warriors had more wives and children. Young men who had not killed were arely married.

Answer 121

In WW2 Germans raped women in concentration camps.

Answer 122

That displays of aggressiveness and bravery are attractive to females

Answer 123

That male warriors in traditional socieites tend to have more sexual partners and more children suggesting a direct reproductive benefit.

Answer 124

Signals of commitment- displays such as scars and mutilations mean commitment to the group, and minimises the likelihood of males absconding to another group.

Answer 125

In recent human history, prolonged warfare results in significant losses on both sides, which could suggest that warfare is actually maladaptive. Does not explain astonishing levels of cruelty in war. It can't be 'in the genes' as we only adapted to fight when we were no longer nomadic and we were protecting our 'site'.

Answer 126

Male gang members have more sexual partners than normal males

Answer 127

1. Success in sports can be linked to status and therefore greater potential access to resources2. For the fans this is affiliation with a dominant group and superiority over subordinate groups, a greater place in social hierarcy, and being more attractive by proxy.

Answer 128

Aggression is linked with victory in some team sports and as such a display of real or ritualised aggression may increase chances of victory either physical dominance or intimidation. Even in minimial contact sports, teams 'sledge' or 'psych out' t heir opponents to gain the upper hand.

Answer 129

Questioned 144 rugby union players about their aggression in the game. Those high in professionalism placed more emphasis on winning and were more likely to use unsanctioned aggression.

Answer 130

"basking in reflected glory"- after a uni football team had performed well, students more likely to wear uni scarves and sweaters.

Answer 131

Statistically speaking, sport teams playing at home win more than when they play away. When hooliganism in football was at it's highest, a common feature of it would be for away fans to go to the town/city early and to 'take' opposition fans traditional areas (like a pub near the ground)

Answer 132

An irrational or unreasoned fear of that which is perceived to be foreign or strange.

Answer 133

itself in many ways involving the relations and perceptions of an ingroup towards an outgroup (us and them), including a fear of losing identity, suspicion of its activities, aggression, and desire to eliminate its presence to secure a presumed purity

Answer 134

Xenophobia appears in "virtually every group of animals displaying higher forms of social organisation." It's a form of natural selection.

Answer 135

Claimed that it is adaptive to exaggerate negative stereotypes about outsiders which acts to increase 'in group' cohesion.

Answer 136

That mechanisms that prompt suspicion towards strangers would have been favoured by natural selection. This would have enabled our ancesters to avoid attack and leave behind more offspring.

Answer 137

found evidence in sports events to suggest such Xenophobic responses are evident in human beings also: particularly in the behaviour of Italian football crowds. From the end of the 1980’s, xenophobic political organisations such as the Northern League in Italy had led to the growth of extreme right-wing movements with racist chants and openly anti-Semitic banners.

Answer 138

Racist conduct of a core of extremist supported led to increase of spectators' violence in general. Gypsies, Jews and Russians were the usual targets.

Answer 139

football fans felt that crowd support contributed to the home advantage. Fans felt responsible and took credit for distracting opponents. However it is unclear whether the size of the crowd impacts or whether the outcome is a result of ‘psyching up’ the home team or distracting the away team.

Answer 140

Studied 11 US basketball games which had no crowds/spectators due to a measles outbreak, comparing them with matches observed by crowds. Both teams actually scored higher without the presence of a crowd, suggesting the crowd does not always have a positive influence on the team's performance.

Answer 141

Most sport crowds are not aggressive, and not all sports have a hooligan problem.

Answer 142

That it is the human equivalent of "ceremonial conflict" in animals. Exclusively male, ritualised symbolic aggression restrained by desire to minimise harm and death, thus more adaptive than warfare. Intention is to humiliate opposition and secure submission and/or dominance and higher status.

Answer 143

begins with the idea that human societies are organised into hierarchical groups with mechanisms to keep those hierarchies in place, consisting of dominant and subordinate groups. DOminant groups enjoy money, health, status, happiness, political power etc.

Answer 144

Age: adults and middle-age people have disproportionate social power over children and younger adults.Gender: Males have disproportionate social power over females (patriarchy)Arbitrary-set: socially constructed and highly salient groups based on characteristics such as religion, clan, ethnicity, nation, race, caste.

Answer 145

They believed that aggression could not be explained using traditional learning theory where only direct experience was seen as responsible for the acquistion of new behaviours.

Answer 146

It suggests that alongside direct experience, we also learn by observing others. We learn the specifics of aggressive behaviour (e.g. the forms it takes, how often it is enacted, the situations that produce it and the targets towards it is directed. A person's biological make up creates a potential for aggression, and it is the actual expression of aggression that is learned.

Answer 147

They learn the behaviours through observation, and learn whether the behaviours are worth repeating through vicarious reinforcement.

Answer 148

A child must form mental representations of events in their social environment, and represent possible rewards and punishments for their aggressive behaviour in terms of expectancies of future outcome. The child will only display the learned behaviour if the expectation of reward is greater than the expectation of punishment.

Answer 149

1. Maintenance through direct experience2. Self-efficacy expectancies

Answer 150

If a child is rewarded for a behaviour, they are more likely to repeat the action in similar situations in the future.

Answer 151

In addition to forming expectancies of the likely outcomes of aggression, children may also develop confidence in their ability to carry out necessary aggressive actions. Children for whom this form of behaviour has been particularly disastrous in the past have less confidence (lower sense of self-efficacy_ in their ability to use aggression successfully to resolve conflicts, and therefore may turn to other means.

Answer 152

Male and female children ranging from three to five years. half were exposed to adult models interacting aggressively with a life sized inflatable Bobo doll and half exposed to models that were non-aggressive towards the doll.

Answer 153

The model displayed distinctive physically aggressive acts toward the doll, e.g. striking it on the head with the mallet and kicking it about the room, accompanied by verbal aggression such as saying 'POW."

Answer 154

Following exposure to the model, children were frustrated by being shown attractive toys which they were not allowed to play with. They were then taken to the room where, among other toys, there was a bobo doll.

Answer 155

Children in the aggression condition reproduced a good deal of physical and verbally aggressive behaviour resembling that of the model. About 1/3 of them repeated the model's verbal responses, while none of the children in the non-aggressive group made such remarks. Boys reproduced more imitative physical aggression than girls, but they did not differ in their imitation of verbal aggression

Answer 156

Found that children who saw the model being rewarded for aggressive acts showed high levels of aggression in their own play. Those who saw the model punished showed a low level of aggression in their play, whilst thsoe in the no-reward, no-punishemtn group were somewhere in between these two levels of aggression- vicarious learning.

Answer 157

He repeated the study, but now, after exposure to the model, he offered rewards to all the children for performing the model's aggressive behaviour. In this case, all three groups (punishment, reward, control) performed a similar number of imitative acts. This shows the learning does take place regardless of reinforcements but that production of behaviours is related to selective reinforcement.

Answer 158

Bandura produced a film of a young woman beating up a live clown. When the children went into the other room, there was the live clown! They proceeded to punch him, kick him, hit him with hammers, and so on.

Answer 159

Found that daily homicide rates int eh US almost always increased in the week following a major boxing match, suggesting that viewers were imitating behaviour they watched that that SLT is evident in adults as well as children.

Answer 160

(Wolfgang and Ferracuti) proposed that in large societies, some subcultures develop norms that sanction violence to a greater degree than the dominant culture. Some cultures may emphasise and model non-aggressive behaviour, producing individuals that show low levels of aggression.

Answer 161

Supports cultural differences, and suggests that differences within individuals can be related to selective reinforcement and context-dependent learning. People respond differently in different situations because they have observed that aggression i rewared in some situations and not others.

Answer 162

-Explains cultural differences-Explains aggressive behaviour in the absence of direct reinforcment (vicarious reinforcement)-Bobo Doll studies, Phillips

Answer 163

-Ethical issues in exposing children to aggression (protection of participants), thus makes it difficult to test and therefore establish the scientific credibility of the theory-Children may have been aware of what was expected of them (demand characteristics).- See Noble

Answer 164

They report that one child arriving at the lab for the experiment said: "Look mummy, there's the doll we have to hit" (Demand characteristics)

Answer 165

Zimbardo introduced the theory of deindividuation, whereby people, when part of a relatively anonymous group, lose their personal identity and hence their inhibitions about violence. Deindivudation theory has been used as an explanation of the collective behaviour of violent crowds, mindless hooligans and social atrocities, such as genocide.

Answer 166

The classic crowd theory of Gustave Le Bon, who described how an individual was transformed when part of a crowd. He claimed that, in a crowd, the combination of anonymity, suggestibility and contagion mean that a 'collective mind' takes possesion of the individual. Thus, the individual loses self-control and becomes capable of acting in a way that goes against personal or social norms.

Answer 167

A psychological state characterised by lowered self-evaluation and decreased concerns about evaluation by others.

Answer 168

Anonymity, and altered consciousness due to drugs or alcohol.

Answer 169

That it may also lead to an increase in prosocial behaviour (crows at music festivals, and large religious gatherings etc.)

Answer 170

It can diminish awareness of our own individuality. n a large crowd, each person is faceless and anonymess- the larger the group, the greater the anonymity. There is a diminished fear of negative evaluation of actions and a reduced sense of guilt

Answer 171

Groups of four female undergraduates were required to deliver electric shocks to another student to 'aid learning'. Half wore bulky lab coats and hoods, addressed as a group when given instructions, never referred to be name, and not introduced to each other, whilst the other half wore normal clothing with large name tags, were given instructions individually, and were introduced to each other by name. Participants in the deindividuation condition shocked 'the learner' for twice as long as did identifiable participants.

Answer 172

Randomly assigned German schoolchildren to handball teams of five, half the teams wearing the same orange shirts, and the other half their normal clothes. The children wearing orange (who were harder to tell apart) played the game consistently more aggressively than the children in everyday clothes.

Answer 173

Analysed newspaper cuttings of sixty lynchings in the United States between 1899-1946. Found that the more people there were in the mob, the greater the savagery with which they killed their victims.

Answer 174

They claim that it is reduced self-awareness, rather than simply anonymity, that leads to deindividuation. If an individual is self-focused, the tend to focus on, and act according to, their internalised attitudes and moral stands, thus reducing antisocial behaviour. If the individual submegers themselves within a group, they may lose this focus, becoming less privately self-aware and therefore less able to regulate their own behaviour.

Answer 175

Found that male and female groups responded differently under deindivudation conditions reflecting a gender bias in the theory. An increase in aggression was obtained only in the all-male groups.

Answer 176

Found greater disinhibition of aggression (i.e. removal of the normal inhibitions concerning aggression) in males.

Answer 177

"The baiting crowd."

Answer 178

Analysed 21 suicide leaps reported in US newspapers in the 60s and 70s, and found that in 10/21 cases where a crowd had gathered to watch, baiting had occured. These incidents tended to occur at night, when the crowd was large, and some distance from the person being taunted (especially when the 'jumper' was high above them) All these features were likely to produce a state of deindividuation in the members of the crowd.

Answer 179

Collected data on the extent to which warriors in 23 societies changed their appearance prior to going to war, and the extent to which they killed, tortured or multilated their victims. Those societies where warriors changed their appearnce were more destructive towards their victims compared to those who did not change their appearance.

Answer 180

They replicated Zimbardo's nurse experiment, but this time participants were made anonymous by means of a mask and overalls (like KKK), or by means of nurses' uniforms. Participants shocked more than a control condition when dressed in KKK uniforms, but actually shocked less than the controls when dressed as nurses. The finding suggests that people respond to normative cues associated with the social context in which they find themselves.

Answer 181

They explored the idea that rather than deindividuation automatically increasing the incidence of aggression, any behaviour produced could be a product of local group norms

Answer 182

They did a meta-analysis of 60 studies of deindividuation, and concluded that there is insufficient support of the major claims of the theory. Found that disihbition and antisocial behaviour are not more common in large groups and anonymous settings. Nor was there much evidence that deindividuation is associated with reduced self-awareness, or that reduced self-awareness increases aggressive behaviour.

Answer 183

Found it could lead to either prosocial or antisocial behaviour depending on situation factors. When prosocial environmental cues were present (such as a prosocial model), deindividuated participants performed significantly more altruistic acts (giving money) and significantly fewer antisocial acts (giving electric shocks) compared to a control group.

Answer 184

Adolescents reported feeling significantly more comfortable seeking help with mental health problems under the deindivuated circumstances of internet chatrooms compared to the individuatied circumstances of a personal appointment with a health professional.

Answer 185

Involves direct actions against a specific individual and is restricted to a specific place and time.

Answer 186

It may occur within groups or institutions, such as the armed forces, prisons or mental institutions, or between different groups.

Answer 187

Claim that prisoners bring their own social histories and traits with them into prison, and this influences their adaption to the prison environment. Irwin and Cressey argue that prisoners are not 'blank states' when they enter prison, and that many of the normative systems developed on the outside world would be imported into the prison (importation model)

Answer 188

Found that gang members disproportionately engage in acts of prison violence.

Answer 189

Found that gang members in the US were ten times more likely to commit a murder and three times more likely to assual someone in public than were non-gang members of a similar age and background.

Answer 190

Agues that prisoner aggression is the product of the stressful and oppressive conditions of the institutions itself (Paterline and Paterson). This includes crowding, assumed to increase fear and frustration levels, and staff experience.

Answer 191

Found that trainee nurses are more likely to suffer violent assault than experienced nurses

Answer 192

Found that in prison setting, length of service was also a significant factor, with more experienced officers being less likely to suffer an assault

Answer 193

He described the specific deprivations that inmates experience within prison and which might be linked to an increase in violence. These included the loss of liberty, the loss of autonomy and the loss of security. Inmates may cope with the pains of imprisonment in several ways. Some choose to withdraw through seclusion in their cell or living space, whereas others choose to rebel in the form of violence against other prisoners or staff.

Answer 194

Found that the potential threat to personal security increased anxiety levels in inmates, even if the majority of prisoners posed no significant threat to them.

Answer 195

1. Difficult social conditions, leading to...2. Scapegoating of a less powerful group, leading to...3. Negative evaluation and dehumanisation of the target group, leading to...4. Moral values and rules becoming inapplicable, and the killing begins5. The passivity of bystanders (e.g. the UN) enhances the process

Answer 196

A whole section of society, defined by ethnicity, religion or some other significant feature.

Answer 197

It was the result of situational pressures that forced Nazi soldiers to obey their leaders regardless of any personal moral repugnance.

Answer 198

Reasoned that if most violence occurs in environments that are hot, noisy, and overcrowded, then this could be avoided by reducing these factors. He set up two units for violent prisoners that were less claustrophobic, and gave a view to outside, and typical prison-life noise was reduced and masked by music from a local radio station. Temperature was lowered so that it was no longer stiflingly hot. These changes virtually eradicated assaults on prison staff and inmates, but political pressure prevented it from becoming commonplace.

Answer 199

That xenophobia has been documented in "virtually every group of animals displaying higher forms of social organisation

Answer 200

A fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners

Answer 201

Argue that the mechanisms that prompt suspicion towards strangers would have been favoured by natural selection. This would have enabled our ancestors to avoid attack and so leave behind more offspring

Answer 202

Suggests that from an evolutionary perspective it is adaptive to exaggerate negative stereotypes about outsiders, as the over perception of threat is less costly than it's underperceptiob

Answer 203

Found evidence of xenophobic tendencies in their analysis of the group displays of Italian football crowds. In the 1980s xenophobic political organisations such as the Northern League led to the growth of extreme right-wing movements characterised by racist chants and openly anti-Semitic banners

Answer 204

That territorial behaviour is common in many animal species, which typically show threat displays toward outsiders and attack with greater vigour when defending a home territory

Answer 205

Aggressive displays of sports team prior to a match suck as the Hakka

Answer 206

Found that football teams playing at home were far more likely to win than the visiting team partly because they had a benefit of a huge surge in restoring before a match, which did not occur before away games. Team members who subjectively felt that the burden of 'defending the territory' lay with then had higher levels of testosterone . They believed this could be due to an evolved drive to defend home territory

Answer 207

-xenophobia-territoriality including threat displays and testosterone and territorial behaviour.

Answer 208

Found that the racist conduct in extremist supporters among Hungarian football crowds led to an increase of spectators violence in general, and xenophobic outbursts in particular. Violent incidents based on racist or xenophobic attitudes were observed at all stadia, with gypsies, Jews and Russians the usual targets

Answer 209

Found that, among football fans, crowd support was rated as the most significant factor contributing to home advantage. Through their displays f support, fans felt responsible for inspiring their team to victory and took credit for distracting opponents

Answer 210

A measles epidemic resulted in a quarantine that caused 11 American basketball games for two teams to be played without spectators. There was no significant difference between performance with and without spectators suggesting that displays of support from home crowds did not increase the performance of the teams.

Answer 211

That a home advantage still could be seen to operate even with very small crowds

Answer 212

By inhibiting the amygdaloid and therefore the responses to emotional stimuli that might otherwise lead to an aggressive response

Answer 213

Increased susceptibility to impulsive behaviour, aggression and even violent suicide

Answer 214

Have 35 healthy subjects dexflenfluamine which us known to deplete serotonin. Using a questionnaire to assess hostility and aggression levels, they found that dexflenfluamine treatment in males (but not females) was associated with an increase In hostility and aggression scores

Answer 215

Using vervet monkeys found that those on high tryptophan diets (which increases serotonin levels in the brain) exhibited decreased levels of aggression and vice versa

Answer 216

Showed that animals bred for domestication and docile temperaments show increased levels of serotonin over times

Answer 217

Established in clinical trials that antidepressant which elevate serotonin actually reduce irritability and impulsive aggression

Answer 218

Low serotonin metabolism (the ability to recycle serotonin at te synaptic cleft), which in turn leads to developing a greater number of serotonin receptors.

Answer 219

Research has found that victims of violent suicide had increased numbers of serotonin receptors in te prefrontal cortex.

Answer 220

Found a link between alcohol consumption which interferes with the metabolism of serotonin in the brain and aggressive behaviour. However this is correlational and other factors such as increased alcohol consumption due to depression confuse the matter

Answer 221

The link between dopamine and aggression is not well established but it is thought that increases in dopamine will produce an increase in aggressive behaviour.

Answer 222

Increases in dopamine activity via the use of amphetamines have also been associated with aggressive behaviour

Answer 223

Antipsychotics, which reduce dopamine activity in the brain, have been shown to reduce aggressive behaviour in violent delinquents

Answer 224

Found that in mice, a reward pathway in the brain becomes engaged in response to an aggressive event, which dopamine is involved as a positive reinforcer. Individuals will seek out an aggressive encounter to receive a rewarding sensation.

Answer 225

It is thought to influence aggression from young adulthood onwards due to it's action on brain areas involved in controlling aggression.

Answer 226

Salivary testosterone from violent and non-violent criminals. Violent criminals had higher testosterone levels

Answer 227

Young males who were aggressive when drink had higher testosterone levels than those who did not act aggressive

Answer 228

There is inconsistent evidence. Some studies show a positive correlation and others show no relationship.

Answer 229

Distinguished between aggression and dominance. In humans the influence of testosterone on dominance is likely I be expressed in more varied and subtle ways.

Answer 230

It appears to have a mediating effect on other aggression-related hormones such as testosterone

Answer 231

Cortisol increases anxiety and therefore inhibits aggression and increases social withdrawal

Answer 232

Low levels of cortisol in habitual violent offenders

Answer 233

Low levels if cortisol in violent schools children

Answer 234

1. Attention: the individual noticed something in their environment 2. Retention: the individual remembers what they have observed3. Motor reproduction: the individual replicates the behaviour shown by the model 4. Motivation: the individual seeks to demonstrate the behaviour that they have observed

Answer 235

1. Live models- physically present in our environment 2. Symbolic models- people in films, books, cartoons

Answer 236

Demonstrated that role models are important in the development of anti-social behaviour and that parents are the most important role models. Found that very aggressive children are raised in homes of high aggression, little affection, and little positive feedback

Answer 237

Used brain imagining techniques to investigate activity in the amygdala and hypothalamus whilst subjects imagined scenes depicting sexual infidelity and emotional jealousy. Men showed greater activation in the amygdala and hypothalamus when presents with scenes depicting sexual infidelity in their partner. Physiological basis for jealousy based aggression.

Answer 238

Bandura and Walters

Answer 239

A person's biological make-up creates a potential for aggression and it is the actual expression of aggression that is learned.

Answer 240

Whereas Skinner's theory claimed that learning takes place through direct reinforcement, Bandura suggested that children learn just by observing role models with whom they indentify.

Answer 241

It is difficult to test experimental hypothesizes about social learning of aggressive behaviour in children due to ethical issues concerning the need to protect participants from psychological and physical harm. Thus it is difficult to establish the scientific credibility of the theory by this means.

Answer 242

FOund that daily homicide rates in the US almost always increased in the week following a major boxing match, suggesting that viewers were imitating behaviour they watched and that social learning is evident in adults as well as children.

Answer 243

Wolfgang and Ferracuti

Answer 244

Proposes that in large socieities, some subcultures develop norms that sanction violence to a greater degree than the dominant cultures.

Answer 245

1. It can explain aggressive behaviour int he absense of direct reinforcement- Vicarious learning 2. Explains individual difference both between and within individuals; some cultures may emphasise and model non-aggressive behaviour, producing individuals that show low levels of aggression. Differences within individuals can be related to selective reinforcement and context-dependent learning i.e. they learn behaviours that are appropriate to particular contexts.

Answer 246

The child-rearing practices; when two children argue/fight parents neither reward nor punish them, but physically separate them and try to distract their attention onto other things. Second, parents do not use physical punishment and aggressive postures are avoided by adults and devalued by the society as a whole. The absence of direct reinforcement of aggressive behaviour as well as the absence of aggressive models means there is little opportunity or motivation for children to acquire aggressive behaviours.

Answer 247

That people, when part of a relatively anonymous group, lose their personal identity and hence their inhibitions about violence.

Answer 248

Repeated Zimbardo's nurse study, but this time participants were made anonymous by means of a mask and overalls (reminiscent of the KKK) or by means of nurses' uniforms. Participants shocked more than a control condition when dressed int he KKK uniforms, but actually shocked less than the controls when dressed as nurses. Suggest people respond to normative cues associated with the social context in which they find themselves.

Answer 249

Irwin and Cressey

Answer 250

Paterline and Peterson

Answer 251

``` 1. The Importation Model: Interpersonal factors Gang membership 2. The deprivation model SItuation factors THe pains of impresionment ```

Answer 252

1. Dehumanisation | 2. Obedience to authority.

Answer 253

A personality variable which predicts social and political attitues. People who are high in SDO endorse social hierarchies and inter-group inequality, and see the world as a 'competitive jungle'.

Answer 254

Domonstrated that people high in social dominance orientation have a tendency to dehumanise outgroup members and in particular foreign refugees and asylum seekers.

Answer 255

If the target group is dehumanised so that its members are seen as worthless animals and therefore not worhty of moral consideration.

Answer 256

Collected data from 58 US prisons and found that black inmates had significantly higher rates of violent behaviour but lower rates of alcohol-related and drug-related misconduct than white inmates. THese patterns parallel racial differences int hese behaviours in US society and so support the importation model.

Answer 257

Challenge the claim that pre-prison gang membership predicts violence whilst in prison. THe found that inmates with prior street gang involvement were no more likely than other inmates to engage in prison violence.

Answer 258

By the fact that violent gang members tend to be isolated from the general inmate population, therefore greatly restricting their opportunities for violence.

Answer 259

Found that isolating known gang members in a special management unit reduced the rates of serious assault by 50%.

Answer 260

Found that overcrowding, lack of privacy and the lack of meaningful activity all significantly influence peer violence. However, research into this area is not sonsistent in its findings.

Answer 261

Found that increased personal space failed to decrease the level of violent incidents among patients in a psychiatric institutions.

Answer 262

Found support for both the deprivation and importation models as explanations of prison violence. THey found that the deprivation model was better able to explain violence against prison staff, whereas the importation model was better able to explain violence against other inmates.

Answer 263

Found that the best indicator of violence among juvenile offenders was pre-institutional violence regardless of any situational factors in the institution.

Answer 264

It emphasises the importance of bystander intervention in prevention bystanders, however, bystander intervention does not necessarily end institutional aggression, as there is an important difference between the effect of intervention on duration and on severity of violence. E.g. Rwanden genocide- 800,000 people in 100 days, with UN intervention

Answer 265

Rejects Milgram's claims that obedience to authority was sufficient to explaint he behaviour of Holocaust perpetrators. He argues that Milgram's acount is monocausal (ignores other possible causes) and simply does not match the historical record.

Answer 266

Suggests that the main causal factor int he Holocaust was a form of anti-Semitism so deeply entrenched in the GErman people at that time they they implicitly condoned the elimination of millions of innocent Jews.

Answer 267

Serotonin and Dopamine

Answer 268

Testosterone and cortisol

Answer 269

Chemicals that enable impulses within the brain to be transmitted from one area of the brain to another.

Answer 270

Thought to reduce aggression by inhibiting responses to emotional stimuli that might otherwise lead to an aggressive response. Low levels of serotonin in the brain have been associated with an increased susceptibility to impulsive behaviour, aggression and even violent suicide.

Answer 271

Gave 35 healthy subjects dexflenfluramine, which is known to deplete serotonin. Using a questionnaire to assess hostility and aggression levels, they found that dexflenflaumine treatment in males (but not females) was associated with an in crease in hostility and aggression scores.

Answer 272

That increases in dopamine activity via the use of amphetamines have been associated with increases in aggressive behaviours.

Answer 273

Antipsychotics, which reduce dopamine activity in the brain, have been shown to reduce aggressive behaviour in violent delinquents.

Answer 274

A meta-analysis of 29 studies published before 1992 examined neuotransmitter levels in antisocial children and adults. Consistently found lower levels of serotonin in individuals described as being aggressive, but found no significant rise or fall in dopamine levels. Reduced levels of serotonin were particularly marked in those individuals who had attempted suicide. Suggests that serotonin repletion leads to impulsive behaviour, which in turn may lead to aggressive behaviour in various forms.

Answer 275

Measured salivary testosterone in violent and non-violent criminals. Those with the highest testosterone levels had a history of primarily violent crimes, whereas those with the lowest levels had committed only non-violent crimes.

Answer 276

Found that young males who behaved aggressively when drunk had higher testosterone levels than those who did not act aggressively.

Answer 277

Wingfield et al

Answer 278

THat in monogamous species, testosterone levels should only rise above the baseline breeding level in response to social challenges, such as male-male aggression or threats to status. In such situations, a testosterone surge is to be expected, with a consequent increase in aggression, provided the threat is deemeted relevant to reproductive competition.

Answer 279

Cortisol appears to have a mediating efect on other aggression-related hormones such as testosterone, possibly because it increases anxiety and the liklihood of social withdrawal.

Answer 280

Found low levels of cortisol in habitual violent offenders

Answer 281

Found low levels of cortisol in violent schoolchildren.

Answer 282

Analysed the results of 230 males over 5 studies and found a low positive correlation between testosterone and aggression.

Answer 283

A meta-analysis of 45 studies which established a mean correlation of 0.14 between testosterone and aggression.

Answer 284

Claims that methodological problems with this study meant that a correlation of 0.08 was more appropraite.

Answer 285

The link is not quite so clear in the case of humans. The complexity of human social behaviour means that a biological explanation for human aggression is insufficient on itts own.

Answer 286

They found that vervet monkeys fed on experimental diets high in tryptophan (which increases serotonin levels in the brain) exhibited decreased levels of aggression. Indiviudals fed on diets that were low in tryptophan exhibited increased aggressive behaviour, suggesting that the difference in aggression could be attributed to their serotonin levels.

Answer 287

Found that animals that are selectively bred for domestication and for increasingly docile temperaments, there is a corresponding increase, over generations, in brain concentrations of serotonin.

Answer 288

Established that in clinical studies of antidepressant drugs that elevate seretonin levels they tend to reduce irritability and impulsive aggression.

Answer 289

Found that in mice, a reward pathway in the brain becomes engaged in response to an aggressive event and that dopamine is involved as a positive renforcer in this pathway. This suggests that individuals will intentionally seek out an aggressive encounter solely because they experience a reawrding sensation from it.

Answer 290

Although research is fairly inconclusive about the causal role of dopamine in aggression, recent researchs uggests that its influence might be as a consequence instead.

Answer 291

Claimed that despite many studies showing a positive correlation between testosterone and aggression, other studies find no such relationship, particularly those that have compared testosterone levels of aggressive and less aggressive individuals.

Answer 292

Suggests that we should distinguish aggression from dominance. Individuals act aggressively when their intent is to inflict injury, whereas they act dominately if they wish to achieve or maintain status over another. Aggression is just one form of dominant behaviour. In huans, the influence of testosterone on dominance is likely to be expressed in more varied and suble ways.

Answer 293

Four-year study of boys with behavioural problems. Those boys with consistently low cortisol levels began antisocial acts at a youner age and exhibited three times the number of aggressive syptoms compared to boys with higher or fluctuating coritsol levels. Researchers concluded that cortisol levels were 'strongly and inversely related to aggressive conduct disorder'

Answer 294

Had male students provide a saliva sample, interact either with a gun or a child's toy for 15 minutes, and then provide another saliva sample. Males who interacted with the gun showed significantly greater increases in testosterone and behaved more aggressively toward another participant compared to those who played with child's toy. (supports challenge hypothesis)

Answer 295

Found that the association between testosterone and aggression is higher for female than male samples.

Answer 296

That women with higher testosterone levels had higher occupational status, possibly as a result of being more assertive.

Answer 297

Found that testosterone could make women act 'nicer' rather than more aggressively, depending on the situation. This supports the idea that, rather than directly increasing aggression, testosterone promotes status-seeking behaviour of which aggression is one type.

Answer 298

If the MZ twins are more alike in terms of their aggressive behaviour then this should be due to genes rather than environment as both types of twin share the same environment as each other but MZ twins are more genetically alike

Answer 299

Using adult twin pairs they found that nearly 50% of the variance in direct aggressive behaviour (aggression toward others) could be attributed to genetic factors.

Answer 300

If a positive correlation is found between aggressive behaviour in adopted children and aggressive behaviour in thier biological parents, a genetic effect is implied. If a positive correlation is found between the adoptee's aggressive behaviour and the rearing family, then an enviornmental effect is implied.

Answer 301

A study of over 14,000 adoptions in Denmark found that a significant number of adopted boys with criminal convictions had biological parents (particularly fathers) with criminal convictions.

Answer 302

A protein called monoamine ozidase produced by a gene. It regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the brain, and low levels of serotonin are associated with impulsive and aggressive behaviour.

Answer 303

a study of a Dutch family which found that many of its male members behaved in a particularly violent and aggressive manner, and a large proportion had been involved in serious crimes of violence, including rape and arson. These men were found to have abnormally low levels of MAOA in their bodies, and a defect in this gene was later identified.

Answer 304

Studied 500 male children. Researchers discovered a variant of the gene associated with high levels of MAOA and a variant associated with low levels. Those with low levels of MAOA were significantly more likely to grow up to exhibit antisocial behaviour but only if they had been maltreated as children. CHildren with high levels of MAOA who were maltreated, and those with low levels who were not maltreated, did not display antisocial behaviour. Suggests gene-enviornment interaction

Answer 305

A series of adoption studies in which the criminal history of an adopted male was compared with the criminal history of both his biological and his adoptive fathers, found that genetic influences were signiicant in cases of property crime but not in cases of violent crime.

Answer 306

Carried out a meta-analysis of 24 twin and adoption studies that supported the genetic basis of aggression. The result suggested a strong genetic influence that could account for as much as 50% of the variance in aggression. Both genes and family environment were influential in determining aggression in youth, but at later ages the influence of rearing environment decreased and the influence of genes increased.

Answer 307

Combined the results of 51 twin and adoption studies and concluded that aggressive antisocial behaviour was largely a product of genetic contributions. However, several variables, including ae and assessment method moderated the genetic influence on aggression, usggesting the influence of other factors affect the expression.

Answer 308

A lot have focused on individuals convicted of violent crime. Convictions for violent crime are relatively few compared to the vast number of violent attacks by individuals that never result in a conviction. THey threrefore represent just a small minority of those regularly involved in aggressive behaviour. Also, offenders designated as 'violent' are not necessarily the most serious, persistant offenders.

Answer 309

1. More than one gene usually contributes to a given behaviour 2. As well as genetic factors there are many non0genetic influences on the manifestation of aggression 3. These influences may interact with each other (gene-environment interaction etc.)

Answer 310

Given the extremely tentative nature of conclusions that can be reached from this research and the far reaching ethical consequences of labelling an individual as a threat to society on the basis of their genetic inheritance, an awareness of the limitations of these studies is extremely important.

Answer 311

CClaimed to have identified a genetic mutation that causes violent behaviour in mice. THis mutation, nicknamed 'fierce' has a range of effects on mice, including extremely violent behaviour towards other mice. A counterpart of this gene does exist in humans, although its precise function is not known.

Answer 312

The mode of assessment was found to be a significant moderator of aggressive behaviour int he 24 studies that made up their analysis. They found that genetic factors explained a large proportion of the variance in aggressive behaviour in studies that had not used parental or self-reports. However, those that had made use of observational ratings showed significantly less genetic contribution and a greater influence of environmental factors.

Answer 313

Replicated Bandura Bobo doll study. Twin pairs were encouraged to act aggressively towards the doll by being exposed to an adult model who also acted aggressively towards it. Researchers found no difference in the correlations between MZ and DZ twins, suggesting that individual differences in aggression were more a product of environmental influences than genetic influences.

Answer 314

A meta-analysis o studies found only a low to moderate correlation between heredity and crime, with better designed and more recently published studies providing less support for the gene-crime hypothesis than more poorly designed and earlier published studies.

Answer 315

Claimed that men have evolved several different strategies to deter their female partners from committing adultery. These range from vigilance to violance, but all are fueld by male sexual jealous, an adaption that evolved specifically to deal with the threat of paternal uncertainty.

Answer 316

Men are always at risk of cuckoldry, and thu the adaptive functions of sexual jealousy would be to deter a mate from sexual infidelity, to reduce the risk of a man unwittingly investing his resources in offspring that are not his own.

Answer 317

Suggests that males have a number of strategies that have evolved specifically for the purpose of keeping a mate. These include restricting their partners' autonomy ('direct guarding') and 'negative inducements' in the form of violence or threats of violence to prevent her from straying.

Answer 318

Showed that in studies of battered women, that in the majority of cases, women cite extreme jealousy on the part of their husbands or boyfrieds as the key cause of the violence directed toward them.

Answer 319

That male sexual jealousy is claimed to be the single most common motivation for killings in domestic disputes.

Answer 320

Concluded that sexual jealousy accounted for 17% of all cases of murder in the UK.

Answer 321

That the detection or suspicion of infidelity is a key predictor of partner violence.

Answer 322

That a conseuqneces of men's perceptions or suspicions of their wives' sexual infidelity is sexual coercion or partner rape.

Answer 323

Found that sexual assault of a female by her male partner was directly linked with the perceived risk of her infidelity.

Answer 324

Found that female victims of partner rape were more likely to have reported engaging in extra-marital sex than women who had not been raped by their male partners.

Answer 325

When a women becomes pregnant witha nother man's child the function of violence directed towards her may be to terminate the pregnancy thus eliminationg the potential offspring of a rival and leaving her free to bear offspring for him

Answer 326

Either by conferring benefits or by inflicting costs, including violence.

Answer 327

That, as not all men possess resources that might be used to provide benefits, some men are especially prone to using violence, or the threat of violence.

Answer 328

That the death of the partner from physical violence may be an unintended outcome of an evolutionary adaptation that was designed for control rather than death.

Answer 329

1. Jealousy: - Cuckoldry - Mate retention and Violence 2. Infidelity - Sexual coercion - Violence toward pregnant partners - Uxorocide

Answer 330

Found that men who suspected that their wives might be unfaithful over the next year exacted greater punishment for a known or suspected infidelity than men who did not anticipate future infidelities.

Answer 331

That the particular tactics of mate retention used by males can be an early indicator of violence against the female partner. The findings from these studies can potentially be used to alert friends andf amily members to the danger signs, the specific acts that can lead to future violence.

Answer 332

Showed that the neural response to imagined scnes depicting sexual infidelity (e..g their partner having sex) and emotional jealousy (e.g. their partner falling in love) was different for men and women. using brain imaging techniques, they discovered that men showed much greater activation in the amygdala and hypothalamus (brain areas associated with aggression), when presented with scenes depicting sexual infidelity in their mate.

Answer 333

Claim that our understanding of the relationship between sexual jealousy and aggression is limited. For example, research doesn't tell us whether the perceived locus of responsibility (.e.g whether the perceived infidelity is initiated by the female partner or the male rival) moderates the jealousy response. Nor does research tell us whether the degree and type of perceived infidelity is important.

Answer 334

Found that men convicted of raping their partners were more likely to have experienced cuckoldry risks prior to their offence compared to men convicted of non-sexual partner abuse.

Answer 335

Found that the frequency of violent acts toward pregnant mates was roughly double that directed toward partners who were not pregnant, with sexual jealousy characterising those men who committed violence against their pregnant partners.

Answer 336

Found that women abused while pregnant were more likely to be carrying the child of a man other than her current mate.

Answer 337

Found that half of a sample of pregnant women physically abused by their partners had suffered from blows directed at their abdomen, specifcially designed to increase the probability of aborting the foetus.

Answer 338

Suggest that it cannot account for why different males, when faced with their infidelity, respond in different ways.

Answer 339

1. Cannot explain why people react in different ways when faced with the same adaptive problem 2. Gender bias- women also engage in mate retention tactics and sometimes behave violently towards their partners

Answer 340

(Gender bias) examined 2060 murders in the US and found that women were twice as likely to murder out of jealousy as were men.

Answer 341

Some external stimulus that triggers the behaviour in question (known as the proximate cause). however, this may conceal the adaptive or 'real' reason why the behaviour evolved in the first place, known as its ultimate cause.

Answer 342

Claims that xenophobia (a fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners) has been documented in virtually every group of animals displaying higher forms of social organisations.

Answer 343

Argue that the mechanisms that prompt suspciion towards strangers would have been favoured by natural selection. THis would have enabled our ancestors to avoid attack, and so leave behind more offspring.

Answer 344

Suggests that from an evolutionary perspective, it is adaptive to exaggerate negative stereotypes about outsiders, as the overperception of threat is less costly than its underperception.

Answer 345

Found evidence of xenophobic tendencies in their analysis of the group displays of Italian football crowds.

Answer 346

The protective response to an invasion of one's territory.

Answer 347

That territorial behaviour is common in many animal species, which typically show threat displays toward outsiders and attack with greater vigour when defending a home territory.

Answer 348

Because they allowed groups to defend valuable resources associated with thier terriroty.

Answer 349

Found that football teams playing at home were far more likely to win than the visiting team partly because players have the benefit of a huge surge in testosterone before a match. They believed this could be due to an evolved drive to defend home territory, which led to more aggressive displays when playing at home. This increase in testosterone levels before home games (compared with levels before training) did not occur before away games. Team members who subjectively felt that the burden of 'defending the territory' lay with them (e.g. goalkeepers) had higher levels of testosterone compared to other players.

Answer 350

In socieites that experience frequent warfare, males are far more likely to escape infanticide than females because of their potential usefulness in battle. As a result, since there are relatively few women compared to men in those societies, men must compete with other for mates, with those that do well in battle being 'rewarded' by access to female mates.

Answer 351

Male warriors in traditional societies tend to have more sexual partners and more children suggesting a direct reproductive benefit.

Answer 352

Because cooperation between males is so important to an individual's status in the group, fleeing from battle would make an individual appear a 'coward' thus losing the respect of their peers. Therefore, displays of aggressiveness and bravery in battle means that individuals are more likely to strength the bond between them and other males in the group, and share the benefits associated with status, which in turn would increase their reproductive fitness.

Answer 353

Claims that the costliness of permanent displays such as scars and mutilationo means that they serve as honest signals of commitment to the group. By engaging in such displays, individuals demonstrate their commitment and loyalty to the group and so can benefit from the profits of warfare against another group.

Answer 354

Minimisies the likelihood of defection. This is because such permanent displays minimise the ability of males to abscond to another group and increase their commitment to the group of which they are a member..

Answer 355

1. Xenophobia | 2. Territoriality

Answer 356

1. Benefits of aggressive displays - Sexual Selection - Acquisition of status within the group 2. Costly displays signal commitment - Signals of commitment - Minimising the likelihood of defection

Answer 357

FInd evidence to support the link between xenophobia and violent displays among Hungarian football crowds. he found that the racist conduct of a core of extremist supporters led to an increase of spectators' volence in general, and xenohpbia outbursts in particular. Violent incidents based on racist or xenophobic attitudes were observed in all stadia, with gypsies, Jews and Russians the usual targets.

Answer 358

FOund that among football fans, crowd support was rated as the most significant factor contribution to a home advantage.

Answer 359

The home team advantage- the relationship with crowd size is unclear as the advantage has been shown to operate even with very small crowds.

Answer 360

A measles epidemic resulted in a quarantine that caused 11 American basketball games for two teams to be played without spectators. For one team, The Siena Saints, 9 away games were analysed. Five were played with spectators, 4 without. They scored an average of 76.25 points with spectators, and 86.20 without. The other team, the Hatford Hawks, 11 home games were analysesd, 4 with no spectators, 7 with spectators. Scored an average of 64.29 with spectators, yet 71.25 without. Suggests that home crowds did not increase performance.

Answer 361

Found that male youth street gang members have more sexual partners than ordinary young males.

Answer 362

Found that military men have greater sex appeal but only if they have been observed showing bravery in combat.

Answer 363

War only emerged when humans shifted from a nomadic existence to a settled one. So rather than being an evolved adaption, it may have emerged as a rational response to a changing lifestyle. THis suggests that warfare and aggressive displays associated, are not biological compulsions but are a consequences of environmental changes such as rising populations and dwindling food supplies.

Answer 364

He found anthropological evidence that suggests that the atrocities committed in war may be more a consequences of deindividuation effects than of evolutionary adaptions.

Answer 365

1. Fail to explain the astonishing levels of cruelty that are often found in human wars yet not among non-human species. 2. Gender bias as they do not adequately reflect the behaviour of women in this process. Our understanding of displays typically found in warfare, is therefore limited to the behaviour of males.