Research Methods Flashcards

Question

What is the limitations of peer review?

Answer 1

1. Slow 2. Expensive 3. Profligate of academic time 4. Highly subjective 5. Prone to bias 6. Easily abused 7. Poor at detecting defects 8. Useless at detecting fraud 9. Finding an expert 10. Anonymity 11. Publication bias 12. Preserving the status quo

Answer 2

It isn't always possible to find a suitable expert to review the report.

Answer 3

Anonymous review is an issue as relationships between experts sometimes affect objectivity, and it can be highly competitive. Now journals prefer open reviewing.

Answer 4

Peer review tends to prefer positive results

Answer 5

peer review tends to prefer results that support previous theory, rather than going against it. Science does not really like huge shifts in opinion or theory.

Answer 6

An experiment involves the manipulation (changing) of an independent variable to see what effect it has on the dependent variable, while at the same time trying to control other variables which might affect the results.

Answer 7

Things which can vary or change

Answer 8

The variable that you manipulate

Answer 9

The variable that you measure.

Answer 10

The researcher has strict control over variables and uses standardised procedures in a controlled environment. The researcher manipulates the Independent Variable.

Answer 11

The experiment takes place in the subjects own natural environment, but the researcher still manipulates the Independent Variable.

Answer 12

The independent variable is already naturally occurring; the researcher just records the effect on the dependent variable. The experiment may take place in a lab or in the natural environment.

Answer 13

1. High control of extraneous variables 2. Replicability 3. high internal validity

Answer 14

1. Investigator effects. 2. Demand characteristics 3. Low external (ecological) validity

Answer 15

1. Experimenter effects reduced if participants are unaware of being studied 2. Natural environment (high ecological validity) 3. Less demand characteristicics

Answer 16

1. Can't control all extraneous variables. 2. Can't always repeat 3. Ethical issues.

Answer 17

1. Some situations would be unethical to set up | 2. High ecological validity

Answer 18

1. Causal conclusions cannot be drawn as IV is not manipulated 2. Participants are not randomly allocated to conditions 3. Confounding variables.

Answer 19

1. Establishes cause and effect | 2. Objective

Answer 20

1. low levels of ecological validity and construct validity | 2. Risk of demand characteristics.

Answer 21

a statement or prediction of what results you expect to find after your experiment.

Answer 22

Much state what you expect will happen, state the independent and dependent variable, and how you will operationalize these. If it is correlational, this must be stated in the hypothesis.

Answer 23

are predictions that state the direction the results will go in.

Answer 24

are predictions that do not state the direction the results will go in.

Answer 25

A null-hypothesis is a statement of no difference between the variables.

Answer 26

This design uses the same participants in both conditions

Answer 27

No individual differences

Answer 28

1. Demand characteristics; likely to figure out what the experimenters are expecting 2. Order effects- either boredom or practice.

Answer 29

Counterbalancing

Answer 30

Each participant only takes part in one condition

Answer 31

1. Fewer demand characters-only know their condition | 2. No order effects

Answer 32

1. Individual differences

Answer 33

involves the use of independent measures, but each participant in Group A is paired with one in Group B. This is done by finding participants who can be matched on key characteristics, e.g. IQ, memory ability, gender and so on. ...

Answer 34

Controls for individual differences

Answer 35

Can be difficult to make perfect matches and is costly on money and time

Answer 36

1. Questionnaires; written form | 2. Interviews; oral type

Answer 37

Require options and explanations from participants – qualitative data

Answer 38

forced choice e.g. yes/no – Quantitative data

Answer 39

Measures strength of opinion e.g. strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree,

Answer 40

Self-report is only ever as good as the questions – Need a pilot study to increase reliability and validity.

Answer 41

1. Allows access to private thoughts and feelings | 2. Can discover potential actions without having to set up a situation to test it.

Answer 42

1. Can be unreliable due to participant variables | 2. Potential researcher bias due to questioning and language.

Answer 43

Observations that take place in a natural situation.

Answer 44

Observations that take place where some variables are controlled and manipulated by the experimenter

Answer 45

The observer acts as part of the group being watched

Answer 46

The experimenter does not become part of the group being observed.

Answer 47

the participants in the study will be aware that they are being watched and this may therefore alter their behaviour

Answer 48

this is covert observation – the subjects are not aware that they are being watched

Answer 49

Direct observation is when we are observing behaviour as it happens.

Answer 50

Indirect observations may be when data has already been collected, for example, observing adverts on tv.

Answer 51

Observations where the behaviours to be observed and the sampling to be used and determined beforehand.

Answer 52

The observer records everything that happens.

Answer 53

This may lead to only recording visible or eye catching behaviour but not necessarily the most important behaviours.

Answer 54

WHen observations are made at regular time intervals and coded

Answer 55

When you keep a tally chart of each time a type of behaviour occurs.

Answer 56

Watching a participant and recording their behaviour.

Answer 57

+ Possible to directly study behaviour rather than relying on self-report methods + High ecological validity as natural settings are observed

Answer 58

Can only measure overt behaviour - Potential observer bias - Observer effect may lead to unreal behaviour

Answer 59

Determining the extent of the relationship between two variables. Association does not mean causation.

Answer 60

A relationship between two co-variables, that as the value of one variable increases so does the other.

Answer 61

A relationship between two co-variables, that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases

Answer 62

When one conducts correlational analysis there is no IV or DV, instead the two variables (which are measured) are referred to as co-variables.

Answer 63

On a scatter graph.

Answer 64

A co-efficient tells us how closely the co-variables are related. +1 is a perfect positive correlation, whilst -1 is a perfect negative correlation. 0 shows no correlation.

Answer 65

1. Can statistically analyse naturally occurring phenomena 2. Reliable measurements on strength and direction of the relationship of the co-variables can be made 3. Easily Replicated

Answer 66

1. Cannot establish cause and effect 2. Intervening (unknown) variables can affect the construct validity of the findings 3. Sample may lack generalisability

Answer 67

Studying one person, group, organisation or event in detail.

Answer 68

+ Efficient method as it only takes one case study to disprove a theory + High validity as research offers detailed insight into naturally occurring but rare phenomena

Answer 69

1. Cannot generalise due to small samples | 2. Subjective

Answer 70

Analysing secondary material to gain an insight into human behaviour.

Answer 71

1. Few ethical issues as material is being studied, rather than people 2. Allows researchers to study people who may be difficult to access directly

Answer 72

1. Misinterpretation may occur due to the people not actually being studied directly 2. Qualitative content findings may be subjective 3. Quantitative content findings may lack construct validity

Answer 73

Whether the researcher measured what they intended to measure

Answer 74

Extraneous/confounding variables.

Answer 75

The extent the results of the study can be generalised to others (ecological validity)

Answer 76

The measure of something that is consistent within itself (e.g. the questions on an IQ test measure IQ)

Answer 77

The measure is consistent over several occasions (e.g. the same individual gets the same IQ score)

Answer 78

1. Inter-rater reliability 2. Split-half method 3. Test-retest method. 4. Face validity 5. Concurrent validity 6. Predictive validity

Answer 79

Two or more interviewers/observers must get the same outcome on 80% or more of the behaviours.

Answer 80

Compare an individual’s performance on two halves of a test.

Answer 81

A person repeats a test a month or so after doing the test the first time

Answer 82

Does the test look as though it measures what it intends to measure.

Answer 83

Results from a new test can be compared to a previously well-established test.

Answer 84

Use the people available at the time. Who are most easily available. The easiest method but inevitably biased.

Answer 85

Participants are selected by asking for volunteers, for example placing an advertisement on a college noticeboard. This method can access a variety of PP which would make the sample more represenatative but is inevitable biased due to volunteer bias.

Answer 86

Participants are identified and then selected by a lottery method or a random name generator. Normally unbiased. May be bias because some people refuse to take part.

Answer 87

Sub-groups are identified (e.g. boys or girls), then a predetermined number from each group is selected randomly in proportion to the target population. More representative.

Answer 88

Same as stratified but using opportunity sampling.

Answer 89

Participants recommend friends to join the study. Prone to bias because you only get access to a small proportion of the population. USeful when conducting research with participants who are not easy to identify.

Answer 90

Any professional group has a duty to behave in an ethical manner i.e. to behave with proper regard for the rights and feelings of others.

Answer 91

1. Informed consent 2. Right to withdraw 3. Debrief 4. Deception 5. Protection for harm.

Answer 92

1. Respect 2. Competence 3. Responsibility 4. Integrity

Answer 93

The researcher needs to maintain privacy, confidentiality, and have informed consent. You would not need informed consent in an observation where people would normally expect to be observed. Deception is only acceptable when revealing the reasons for the study affect the integrity of the results.

Answer 94

Psychologists should maintain high standards.

Answer 95

Psychologists have responsibilities to clients, the public, and the science of psychology. This incorporates a debrief and protection from harm.

Answer 96

Psychologists should be honest and accurate, including the reporting of findings. Any misconduct should be reported to the BPS.

Answer 97

1. Results are important enough 2. Research cannot be done without animals 3. There is a minimum number of animals used 4. Discomfort is kept to a minimum.

Answer 98

1. Animals are fascinating 2. Animals allow for greater control and more objectivity 3. You can use animals when you can't use humans 4. There is enough of a similarity between humans and animals to draw conclusions from one to the other.

Answer 99

1. Sentient beings 2. Speciesism 3. Animal rights.

Answer 100

View is Utilitarian, (the greatest good for the greatest number), so if an animal reduces human suffering it is justifiable.

Answer 101

Says animals should never be used under any circumstances.

Answer 102

That testing on different animals is no different to sexism or racism.

Answer 103

That we have a duty to humans

Answer 104

1. Reduction (use fewer animals) 2. Replacement (use alternative methods if possible) 3. Refinement (use improved techniques to reduce stress). The house of Lords endorses this principle.

Answer 105

106 out of 180

Answer 106

Descriptive and Inferential

Answer 107

When you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the immediate data alone. For example, using inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data what the population may think

Answer 108

1. Measures of Central tendency | 2. Measure of dispersion

Answer 109

1. Mean-add all scores together then divide by total number of scores 2. Mode- most common value within a set of values 3. Median-finding the mid-point in an ordered set of values

Answer 110

1. Shows a spread of data, e.g. the range of the data | 2. Standard deviation

Answer 111

Data in separate categories, such as grouping people based on eye colour etc.

Answer 112

Data that are ordered such as asking people to put football teams in order of preference etc.

Answer 113

Data that are measured using units of equal measurements or using any 'public measurement- attendance at football games, Bandura's observation every 5 seconds etc.

Answer 114

- It makes use of all the values of all the data – represents all - Precise - Extreme values can make it misrepresentative - Can only be used with interval data

Answer 115

- Not affected by extreme values – anomalies can be discounted - Can be used with ordinal data - Not as ‘sensitive’ as the mean, as not all values are used

Answer 116

- Useful when the data are in categories i.e. nominal data - Not useful if there are several modes - Useful when there are only a small number of values

Answer 117

- Provides direct information - Affected by extreme values - Doesn't take into account the number of observations/values in the data set.

Answer 118

1. Give the graph a title 2. Label both of the axes 3. Use a ruler 4. Make the graph at least half a side in size 5. Plan before rushing in 6. Think carefully about your choice of graph

Answer 119

When data can be divided into categories otherwise known as discrete data. Bars are separated on a bar chart to denote we are dealing with separate conditions.

Answer 120

To depict associations with co-variables. Either variable occupies the X-axis and the other the y-axis.

Answer 121

When the data is continuous rather than discrete (as in a bar chart). The bars touch each other. The x-acis is made up of equal sized intervals of a single category, like 0-9, 10-19 etc.

Answer 122

Line graphs are used to represent continuous data and use points connected by lines to show how something changes in value, or instance, over time.

Answer 123

Psychologists look at data to see if the pattern of results could have occurred by chance. If there results did not occur by chance then we say they are significant.

Answer 124

You need to have a null hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis. What we are looking for is a significant difference in results, so we can see they are not due to chance; we want to accept the alternative hypothesis.

Answer 125

Normally psychologists set the probability level at p≤0.05 | which means there is a 5% possibility the results occur by chance in the sample]

Answer 126

The rho or u value calculated is called the observed value.

Answer 127

You need to look in a table of critical values to see if the results are significant. You need to know the 1) degrees of freedom (df) – normally the number of ppts in a study (N); 2) one- or two-tailed test; 3) significance level – normally p≤0.05

Answer 128

When your significance level is too lenient (usually about 10%) and you end up accepting the alternative hypothesis when you should have rejected it and accepted the null hypothesis.

Answer 129

When the significance level is too strict (usually 1%) and you accept the null hypothesis when you should have rejected it and accepted the alternative hypothesis.

Answer 130

If the data has been put into categories (nominal data). This is a test of difference or of an association. The results are independent in each cell, and the expected frequencies in each cell are greater than 4.

Answer 131

If a test of correlation is needed. The data involved ratings made by participants that are ordinal/interval data. Each participant has two co-variables.

Answer 132

If a test of difference is required. The design is independent groups and the data was ordinal or interval.

Answer 133

If a test of difference is required. The design is repeated measures and the data is interval or ordinal.

Answer 134

If the observed value exceeded the critical value.

Answer 135

If the observed value exceeded the critical value.

Answer 136

If the observed value is below the critical value.

Answer 137

If the observed value is below the critical value.

Answer 138

Used to determine whether the relationship between two co-variables is significant or not.

Answer 139

1. When hypothesis predicts a correlation between 2 co-variables 2. When 2 sets of data are pairs of scores from one person, e.g. hair colour & IQ score 3. The data are ordinal or interval, i.e. not nominal.

Answer 140

1. When hypothesis predicts a difference between 2 sets of data (i.e. experiment) 2. The 2 sets of data are pairs of scores from one person 3. The data needs to be ordinal or interval, not nominal.

Answer 141

1. Have nominal data. 2. When we've counted how many occurences there are in each category 3. Used when hypothesis predicts a difference or association 4. Sets of data must be independent 5. Must have at least 20 participants for 2x2 contingency table.

Answer 142

1. The hypothesis states a difference between two sets of data 2. The two sets of data are from separate groups of participants- independent groups 3. The data is ordinal or interval.

Answer 143

1. Abstract 2. Introduction/Aim 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

Answer 144

A summary of the study, covering the introduction, method, results and discussion.

Answer 145

What the researchers intend to investigate, refer to previous studies, and state the hypotheses.

Answer 146

What the researchers did, in enough detail to be replicated, also mentioned are the participants, the environment, the procedure, the data collection methods and the instructions to the participants.

Answer 147

Statistical data and descriptive statistics.

Answer 148

An explanation of the results is given, with implications for future research.

Answer 149

Full details of the journals mentioned.

Answer 150

1. The purpose of the study 2. Length of time required for Participants 3. right to withdraw 4. Reassurance about protection from harm 5. The requirement to undertake a series of psychological tests 6. Reassurance about confidentiality of the data 7. Ethical and methodological issues, so they can make an informed decisions

Answer 151

1. Should be clear and succinct 2. Explain the relevant procedures and check the understanding of instructions 3. Use appropriate language and be courteous

Answer 152

1. Refer to participant's result being confidential 2. Thanked for contribution 3. Aim of study 4. Reference to ethical guidelines 5. Display standardised instructions to the participant again

Answer 153

1. Quantitative data is not always applicable to everyday life 2. More subjective, aims to represent the real world 3. Broad range of answers explored 4. Lots of data 5. Qualitative data should not be converted to numbers

Answer 154

1. Coding 2. Analysing the data (thematic analysis or grounded theory) 3. Summarising the data

Answer 155

This is the process of identifying categories, themes, phrases, or keywords in the data set.

Answer 156

1. Top-down approach (thematic analysis) | 2. Bottom-up approach (grounded theory)

Answer 157

When you analyse the data you find themes and concepts by using an existing theory/explanation. For example, clinical characters of SZ may be used as categories when coding self-descriptions of patients with SZ.

Answer 158

When analysing the data the codes and categories emerge from the data. So codes remain grounded in the observation rather than being generated before the study. You would use it in an area which is new or when developing new insights.

Answer 159

Behavioural categories that are identified are listed and used later when summarising the data. For example, the psychologist lists the themes or categories and then counts the frequency of each occurrence etc.

Answer 160

1. Represents the true complexities of human behaviour 2. Gains access to thoughts and feelings which may not be assessed using quantitative methods with closed questions 3. Provides rich detail

Answer 161

1. More difficult to detect patterns and draw conclusions 2. Subjective analysis can be affected by personal expectations and beliefs 3. Time consuming

Answer 162

An approach to psychological qualitative research with an idiographic focus, which means that it aims to offer insights into how a given person, in a given context, makes sense of a given phenomenon.

Answer 163

A systematic methodology in the social sciences involving the construction of theory through the analysis of data

Answer 164

Discourse analysis is the study of social life, understood through analysis of language in its widest sense (including face-to-face talk, non-verbal interaction, images, symbols, and documents). It offers ways of investigating meaning, whether in conversation or in culture.

Answer 165

1. Empirical methods 2. Objectivity 3. Replicability 4. Theory Construction 5 Hypothesis Testing

Answer 166

This is important because people can make claims about anythng but the only way we know such things to be true is through direct testing, i.e. empiracle evidence rather than by reasoned argument or unfounded beliefs.

Answer 167

An important aspect of empirical data i that it should be objective, i.e. not affected by the expectations of the researcher. Systematic collection of measurable data is at the heart of the scientific method. In order to be objective the ideal is to carefully control conditions in which research is conducted. This enables a cause and effect relationship to be investigated.

Answer 168

One way to demonstrate the validity of any observation or experiment is to repeat it. In order to achieve such replication it is important for scientists to record their procedures carefully so someone else can repeat them exactly and verify the original results.

Answer 169

Explanations or theories must be constructed to make sense of the facts. A theory is a collection of general principles that explain observations and facts. Such theories can then help us understand and predict the natural phenomena around us.

Answer 170

Theories are modified through the process of hypothesis testing. This is another essential characteristic of science where the validity of a theory is tested. A good theory must be able to generate testable expectations. These are stated in the form of a hypothesis/es. If a scientist fails to find support for a hypothesis, then the theory requires modification.

Answer 171

Because complex phenomena are reduced to simple variables in order to study the causal relationship between them. It is also reductionist in the development of theories- the canon of parsimony or Occam's Razors stated that "Of two competing theories or explanations, all other things being equal, the simpler one is to be preferred.

Answer 172

If we reduce complex behaviour to simple variables this may tell us little about 'real' behaviour, and yet without this reductionism it is difficult to pick out any patterns or reach conclusions.

Answer 173

It is determinist in its search for causal relationships. If we don't take a determinist view of behaiour then this rules out scientific research as a means of understanding behaviour.

Answer 174

Determinism may oversimplify the relationship between causes and effects but provides insights into important factors, such as the influence of nature and nurture.

Answer 175

1. Yes- Scientific research is desirable 2. Yes- Psychology uses the scientific Method 3. No-Pseudoscience 4. No-Lack of objectivity and control

Answer 176

In the 19th century, early psychologists sought to create a science of psychology because this would enable them to produce verifiable knowledge about behaviour as distinct from commonsense or 'armchair psychology'/

Answer 177

Most psychologists generate models that can be falsified and conduct well-controlled experiments to test these models.

Answer 178

Suggests that psychologists who attempt to be scientists are doing no more than 'dressing up'. They may take on the tools of science but that doesn't make it science.

Answer 179

THere is the question of whether simply using the scientific method turns psychology into a science. Perhaps at best it is a pseudoscience- but a dangerous one because psychologists can then claim their discoveries are fact.

Answer 180

In psychology the object of study reacts to the researcher and this leads to problems, such as experimenter bias and demand characteristics, which compromise validity.

Answer 181

SOme psychologists claim that human behaviour can be measured as objectiviely as the measureent of physical objects. Plus, similar problems apply to the hard science, i.e. Heisenberg's Uncertainty principle.

Answer 182

1. Nomothetic vs. Idiographic 2. Scientific Methods haven't worked 3. Qualitative research

Answer 183

Some psychologists do not see the study of behaviour as a scientific pursuit. Science takes the nomothetic approach, looking to make generalizations about people and find similarities, whilst some psychologists claim that the idiographic approach (looking at individuals) is more suited to psychology.

Answer 184

In discussing the causes of SZ, he claimed it was inappropriate to view a person experiencing distress as a physical-chemical system that had gone wrong. Laing claimed that treatment could only succeed if each patient was treated as an individual case (the idiographic approach).

Answer 185

Psychological approaches to treating mental illness have had at best modest success, which suggests that the goals of science are not always appropriate.

Answer 186

Some psychologists advocate more subjective qualitative methods of conducting research. However, these methods are still 'scientific' insofar as they aim to be valid. For example, data can be collected thorugh multiple methods and then triangulated.

Answer 187

The findings from different methods are compared with each other as a means of verifying them and making them objective.

Answer 188

(Also called refereeing) is the assessment of scientific work by others who are experts in the same field (i.e. peers) Their task is to report on the quality of the research and then their views are considered by a peer review panel.

Answer 189

Did research that suggested that intelligence is inherited, and this was used to shape social policy, such as the 11-plus examination. However, Burt has been publicly discredited for frauding the results.

Answer 190

He was found responsible for scientific misconduct related to a number of published scientific papers. He appears to have drawn conclusions for which he has been unable to provide evidence.

Answer 191

Surveyed over 2000 psychologists asking them to anonymously report their involvement in questionable research practices. They found that 70% said they cut corners in reporting data and 1% admitted to falsifying data. They concluded that questionable practices may constitute the prevailing research norm.

Answer 192

First, there is a lack of trust, meaning in the future people are likely to be less trusting of scientific data. Second data from such fraudulent studies remains published. There are people who will continue to use the fauly data not knowing that it is discredited.

Answer 193

1. Allocation of research funding 2. Publication of research in scientific journals and books 3. Assessing the research rating of University departments

Answer 194

Research is paid for by various government and charitable bodies. THerefore, public bodies such as the Medical Research Council require reviews to enable them to decide which research is likely to be worthwhile.

Answer 195

THe peer review process has been used in such journals since the middle of the 20th century as a means of preventing incorrect or faulty data entering the public domain.

Answer 196

All university science departments are expected to conduct research and this is assessed in terms of quality (research excellence framework, REF). Future funding for the department depends on receiving good ratings from the RAE peer review.

Answer 197

"But we k now that the system of peer review is biased, unjust, unaccountable, incomplete, easily fixed, often insulting, usually ignorant, occasionally foolish, and frequently wrong."

Answer 198

"Peer review is slow, expensive, profligate of academic time, highly subjective, prone to bias, easily abused, poor at detecting gross defects and almost useless at detecting fraud."

Answer 199

1. Finding an expert 2. Anonymity 3. Publication bias 4. Preserving the status quo 5. Cannot deal with already published research

Answer 200

It isn't always possible to find an appropriate expert to review a research proposal or repeat. This means that poor research may be passed because the reviewer didn't really understand it.

Answer 201

Reviewers may use the veil of anonymity to settle old scores or bury rival research. Social relationships inevitably affect objectivity. Some journals now favour open reviewing (where both author and reviewer know each other's identity)

Answer 202

JOurnals tend to prefer to publish positive results, possibly because editors want research that has important implications in order to increase the standing of their journal. This results in a bias in published research that in turn leads to a misperception of the true facts. Furthermore, it appears that journals also avoid publishing straight replications of a study, a fundamental part of research validation.

Answer 203

Submitted a replication of a study on paranormal phenomena and found that it was not even considered for peer review.

Answer 204

Suggests that journals are as bad as newspapers for seeking eye-catching stories.

Answer 205

Peer review results n a preference for reearch that goes with existing theory rather than dissenting or unconventional work. Science is generally resistant to large shifts in opinion. Peer Review may be one of the elements that slow change down.

Answer 206

"The mistake, of course, is to have thought that peer review was any more than a crude means of discovering the acceptability- not the validity- of a new finding"

Answer 207

Once a research study has been published, the results remain in the public view even if they have subsequently been shown to be fraudulent or simply the result of poor research practices. This emphasisis the need for increased vigilance by scientists of the quality of their work.

Answer 208

Points to peer-reviewed research that was subsequently debunked but nevertheless continued to be used in a debate in parliament.

Answer 209

The Psychologist, Archives of Sexual Behaviour, Journal of Early Adolescence and British Journal of Psychology.

Answer 210

By having various levels of editor to check information posted. THey recognise however, while it may be simple to detect incorrect information, it is more difficult to recognise 'subtle viewpoint promotion' than in a typical reference work. On the other hand, they point out that bias which would be unchallenged in a traditional reference work is more likely to be pointed out. Additionally, the online form of Wikipedia permits instant revision when mistakes are spotted.

Answer 211

All experiments involve an independent variable and dependent variable. The IV is varied in order to see how this affects the DV, thus demonstrating a causal relationship.

Answer 212

Tends to be high in terms of internal validity because many extraneous variables can be controlled. Control also increases replicability, which is desirable.

Answer 213

Investigator/experimenter effects and demand characteristics may reduce internal validity. External validity is reduced because a highly controlled situation may be less like everyday life.

Answer 214

Higher external validity. It may be possible to control extraneous variables (moreso than natural). Experiment effects are reduced because participants are usually not aware of being in a study.

Answer 215

COntrol over extraneous variables is more difficult than in a lab experiment. Demand characteristics may still be problematic, for example, the way the IV is operationalised may convey the experimetal hypothesis to participants.

Answer 216

It is often the only way to study certain behaviors or experiences. High external validity.

Answer 217

THe IV is not deliberately manipulated so causal conclusions cannot be drawn. Participants are not randomly allocated to conditions which may reduce validity.

Answer 218

Too little control means it is difficult to draw clear conclusions because of extraneous variables.

Answer 219

Too much control means the behaviour we are studying isn't very uch like everyday life.

Answer 220

Can be more easily repeated in exactly the same way than unstructured interviews.

Answer 221

Where the questions are developed by the interviewer as a response to the answers given by the interviewee.

Answer 222

Open questions permit a respondent to provide their own answer. Such questions can produce unexpected answers providing rich insights but they are more difficult to analyse than closed questions.

Answer 223

A detailed study of a single individual, institution or event. It uses information from a range of sources. Are generally longitudinal. Many techniques may be used, such as interviews, observations etc.

Answer 224

It is difficult to generalise from indivudal cases as each one has unique characteristics. It is often necessary to use recollection of past events as part of the case study and such evidence may be unreliable.

Answer 225

By identifying what they intend to study and then making a formal statement of their expectations using a hypothesis. A good hypothesis should be operationalised so that the variables are in a form that can be easily tested.

Answer 226

Investigators may communicate their expectations unwittingly to participants, thus leading participants to fulfil the investigator's expectation.

Answer 227

Features of an experiment that may cue participants to behave in predictable ways

Answer 228

When Participants wish to present themselves in a good light

Answer 229

A small-scale trial run of a research study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making imrpovements in the main study

Answer 230

Validity is related to reliability because, if a measurement is not reliable (consistent), then a study cannot be valid. However, a measiruement may be reliable but still lack validity.

Answer 231

By dividing total agreements by the total number of observations. A result of 0.80 or more suggests good inter-rater reliability.

Answer 232

Through training observers in the use of a coding system/behaviour checklist.

Answer 233

A measure to the extent to which something is consistent within itself, i.e. measuring the same thing.

Answer 234

A measure of consistency over several different occasions.

Answer 235

Whether two interviewers produce the same outcome.

Answer 236

1. The split-half method | 2. Test-retest method

Answer 237

To compare a person's performance on two halves of a questionnaire or test. If the test is assessing the same thing in all its questions then there should be a close correlation in the scores derived from both halves of the test, a measure of internal reliability.

Answer 238

Where a person is given a questionnaire/interview/test on one occasion and this this is repeated again after a reasonable interval (e.g. a week or a month.) If the measure is reliabile (external) the outcome should be the same every time.

Answer 239

Concerns what goes on inside a study- whether the researcher did test what they intended to test. Is affected by extraneous variables which may act as an alternative IV.

Answer 240

Concerns things outside a study- the extent to which the results of the study can be generalised to other situations and people.

Answer 241

Observations will not be valid (nor reliable) if the coding system/behaviour checklist is flawed. It is also affected by observer bias- what someone observes is influenced by their expectations. THis reduces the objectivity of observations.

Answer 242

Refers to all the people about whom a researcher wishes to make a statement.

Answer 243

From the target population a small group who represent the target population in terms of characteristics. A sample that is not representative is described as biased.

Answer 244

To minimise cost whilst maximising generalisability.

Answer 245

Taking every tenth person from a register etc.

Answer 246

The sampling strategies used, which may create a biased sample.

Answer 247

1. Face validity | 2. Concurrent validity

Answer 248

Does the test look as if it is measuring what the researcher intended to measure?

Answer 249

This can be established by comparing performance on a new questionnaire or test with a previously established test on the same topic. If the participants' performance on both tests show a high correlation, this is evidence of high concurrent validity.

Answer 250

"...studies in which there are potential social consequences or implications, either directly for the participants in research or the class of individuals represented by the research"

Answer 251

The consideration of inter-racial differences in IQ. Research on drug abuse or sexual orientation.

Answer 252

Whether or not such research should be conducted. If research is not conducted, such groups may miss out on any potential benefits from the research. Also, ignoring these important areas of research would amount to an abdication of the 'social responsibilites' of the psychological researcher. THey should focus more clearly on the implications of their findings and the worrying potential.

Answer 253

Concern for the protection of human participants in research has its roots in the Nuremberg Code, a document designed to protect against the unethical Nazi practices. It was the first ethical code of practice.

Answer 254

1. Respect 2. Competence 3. Responsibility 4. INtegrity

Answer 255

Respect for the dignity and worth of all persons, including privacy, confidentiality and informed consent. And right to withdraw. Observations in public without informed consent are only acceptable in situations where the people being studied would reasonably expect to be observed by strangers. Intentional deception is only acceptable when it is necessary to protect the intergrity of research and when the nature of the deception is disclosed to participants are the earliest opportunity.

Answer 256

Psychologists should maintain high standards in their professional work.

Answer 257

Psychologists have a responsibility to their clients, the general public, and to the science of psychology. THis include protection of participant from harm as well as debriefing to inform clients of the nature and conclusions of the research to identify any unforeseen harm, and to arrange for assistance if needed.

Answer 258

Psychologists should be honest and accurate. This includes reporting the findings of any research accurately and acknowledging any potential limitations. It also includes bringing instances of misconduct by other psychologists to the attention of the BPS>

Answer 259

1. They are cascinating and such research may ultimately benefit animals 2. They offer the opportunity for greater control and objectivity 3. We may use animals when we can't use humans 4. Human beings and non-humans animals have enough of their physiology and evolutionary past in common to justify conclusions drawn from one experiment involving one, to the other (although it could be argued that animals tested under stressful conditions may provide very little useful info)

Answer 260

1. Sentient Beings 2. Speciesism 3. Animal Rights

Answer 261

In terms of pain there is evidence that animals respond to pain but this may not be the same as conscious awareness. THere is some evidence that animals other than primates have self-awareness though. Plus, some humans, such as brain-damaged individuals, lack sentience but wouldn't be used in research without content.

Answer 262

Peter Singer argued that discrimination on the basis of species is no different from racial or gender discrimination and thus suggests that the use of animals is an example of 'speciesism', similar to racism or sexism.

Answer 263

Argues that we have a special duty of care to humans, then speciesism is not equivalent to, for example, racism.

Answer 264

Singer's view is a Utilitarian one, i.e. whatever produces the greater good for the greater number is ethically acceptable, so if animal research can alleviate pain and suffering it is justfiable. THe concept of rights- having rights is dependent on having responsibilites in society, i.e. as citizens. It can therefore be said that as animals do not have responsibilites they have no rights.

Answer 265

He argued that there are no circumstances under which animal research is acceptable. Regan claims that animals have a right to be treated with respect and should never be used in research.

Answer 266

THat animal research only takes place at licensed laboratories with licensed researchers on licensed projects.

Answer 267

1. Potential results are important enough to justify the use of animals 2. The research cannot be done using non-animal methods 3. The minimum number of animals will be used 4. Any discomfort or suffering is kept to a minimum by appropriate use of anaesthetics or painkillers.

Answer 268

The law requires that any new drug must be tested on at least two different species of live mammal.

Answer 269

Russell and Birch

Answer 270

Reduction (use fewer animals), Replacement (where possible use alternative methods, such as brains cans) and refinement (use improved techniques to reduce stress.) The House of Lords endorsed the principle of the 3Rs with respect to animal research.

Answer 271

Inferential statistics allow us to determine whether a difference is significant. They allow you to work out, at a given probability, whether a pattern in the data from a study could have arised by chance or whether the effect occurred becuse there is a real difference/correlation

Answer 272

The probability level chosen, i.e. P

Answer 273

A 5% level of sgnificance. One reason for this is because it is a good compromise between Type 1 and Type 2 errors.

Answer 274

When we reject the null hypothesis when we should have accepted it. Usually because we use a lenient level of significance (e.g. 10%)

Answer 275

When we accept the null hypothesis when it is in fact false. Usually because we are using a signifcance level that is too stringent (e.g. 1%)

Answer 276

IN most cases you get this value by looking at the number of participants in the study (N)

Answer 277

THe data are in separate categories

Answer 278

The data are ordered in some way. The 'difference' between each item is not the same.

Answer 279

Data are measured using units of equal intervals.

Answer 280

1. The hypothesis states a correlation between two co-variables 2. The two sets of data are pairs of scores from one person or thing, i.e. they are related 3. The data are ordinal or interval (i.e. not nominal)

Answer 281

Observed value of rho must be equal to or greater than the critical value

Answer 282

By multiplying (rows-1) X (Columns-1)= DF

Answer 283

The first number is always rows and the second number is columns. I.e. 2X2 contingency table has two rows and two columns. A 3x2 contingency table has 3 rows and 2 columns.

Answer 284

Observed value of X^2 must be euqal to or greater than the critical value

Answer 285

1. The hypothesis states a difference or association between co-variables 2. The sets of data must be independent (no individual should have a score in more than one cell) 3. The data are in frequencies (i.e. nominal). Frequencies must not be percentages.

Answer 286

When the expected frequencies (i.e. the ones you calculate) fall below 5 in any cell i.e. you need at least 20 participants for a 2X2 contingency table.

Answer 287

the Mann-Whitney test and the WIlcoxon test.

Answer 288

In a matched pairs study there are two groups of participants, however the groups are not indepedent, they are matched on characteristics, such as IQ, age, etc. Therefore, matched pairs experiments use repeated measures tests.

Answer 289

1. The hypothesis states a difference between two sets of data 2. The two sets of data are from separate groups of participants = independent groups 3. The data are ordinal or interval (i.e. not nominal)

Answer 290

If you have a one-tailed hypothesis, but the difference isn't in the direction that you stated (i.e. you got a negative correlation when you predicted a positive correlation) you cannot accept the alternative hypothesis and cannot reject the null hypothesis.

Answer 291

For any N1 and N2 observed value of U (look at number that lines up with the row and columns) must be equal to or less than the critical value.

Answer 292

1. The hypothesis states a difference between two sets of data 2. The two sets of data are pairs of scores from one person (or a matched pair) = related 3. The data are ordinal or interval (i.e. not nominal)

Answer 293

Observed value of T must be euqal to or less than the critical value. Results may be omitted if the difference between scores and rank is 0, which then changes the N (partipant) value.

Answer 294

1. Introduction 2. Method 3. Design and Materials 4. Participants 5. Ethics 6. Procedures What will actually be done? 7. Results

Answer 295

Consider past research. Decide on the research aims and/or hypothesis (directional or non-directional)

Answer 296

Decide on the target population and the overarching research method (e.g. experiment, questionnaire etc.). IN case of an experiment/correlational analysis you need to identify IV and DV or co-variables.

Answer 297

Consider and describe what materials will be used. COnsider issues related to validity and reliability and how these will be dealt with. WHat type of experiment, what experiment design, what type of question, what tye of observation?

Answer 298

Identify a suitable sampling technique and explain how it would be used. Consider size and composition of the sample. If using independent groups, explain how to assign participants to group. In observations study, also talk about how observations are recorded (time o revent sampling etc.)

Answer 299

Identify any ethical issues that might arise in the study and consider how they might be dealt with.

Answer 300

Cnsider replicability- to what extent could someone else follow your instructions and repeat exatly what you did? OUtline standardised instructions given to each participant. Decide whether a pilot study will be conducted.

Answer 301

This includes informed consent. Explains when and what materials will be given, where the participants are tested, how long they will have, etc.

Answer 302

Consider what statistics to use. THis includes descriptive and inferential statistics (including the level of significance to be used) Consider analysis for questionnaire/interviews.

Answer 303

1. Abstract 2. Introduction 3. Method 4. Results 5 Discussion 6. References

Answer 304

A summary of the study covering the aims, hypothesis, the method (procedures), results and conclusions (including implications of the current study(

Answer 305

BEgins with a review of previous research, which should lead logically to the study to be conducted, so the reader is convinced of the reasons for this particular research. The researcher(s) states their aims, research prediction and/or hypothesis.

Answer 306

A detailed description of what the researcher(s) did, providing enough information for replication of the study. Includes design (design decisions must be justified), participants (sampling methods, how many PP and their detials), apparatus/materials, procedures(standardised instructions, testing environment, order of events etc.) and ethics (ethical issues mention and solutions)

Answer 307

What the researcher(s) found, including descriptive statistics and inferential statistics *justified, observed value and significance level reported). Statement of whether null hypothesis accepted or rejected. In case of qualitative research, categories and themes are described along with examples within these categories.

Answer 308

The researcher aims to interpret the results and consider their implications for future research as well as suggesting real-world application. Summary of the results (explanation of what this shows), relationship to previous research, consideration of methodology (improvements may be suggested), implications (for theory ad real-world applications) and suggestions for future research.

Answer 309

The full details of any journal articles or books that are mentioned.

Answer 310

1. Measures of central tendency 2. Measures of dispersion 3. Graphs

Answer 311

1. The mean 2. The median 3. The mode

Answer 312

1. Range | 2. Standard deviation

Answer 313

Averages. Is calculated by adding up all the scores and dividing by the number of scores.

Answer 314

It makes use of the values of all the data in the final calculation but can be unrepresentative of the data as a whole if there are extreme values. It is not appropriate for nominal data.

Answer 315

The middle value in an ordered list.

Answer 316

It is not affected by extreme scores but is not as 'sensitive' as the mean because not all values are reflected in the median. It is not appropriate for nominal data.

Answer 317

The value that is most common in a data set.

Answer 318

It is the only method appropriate when the data are in categories, i.e. nominal data, but can be used for all kinds of data. It is not a useful way of describing data when there are several mode.s

Answer 319

Calculated by finding the difference between the highest and lowest score in a data set. THis is easy to calculate but may be affected by extreme values.

Answer 320

Expresses the spread of the data around the mean. THis is a more precise measure because all the values of the data are taken into account. However, some characteristics of the data are not expressed, such as the influence of extreme values.

Answer 321

THe height of the bar represents frequency. SUitable for both words and numbers, i.e. all levels of measurement.

Answer 322

Suitable for correlational data, a dot or cross is shown for each pair of values.

Answer 323

1. State the observed value 2. Say whether this is greater than or less than the critical value 3. State whether the null hypothesis can be rejected or must be accepted 4. Restate the hypothesis you ae accepting.

Answer 324

1. They do not produce results that are applicable to everyday life 2. Qualitative methods emphasise subjectiveness because they aim to represent the world as seen by the individual.

Answer 325

A term used to describe the extent to which the process of research reflects a researcher's values and thoughts.

Answer 326

Using triangulation, comparing the results from a variety of different studies of the same thing or person. HTe studies are likely to have used different methodologies. If the results agree this supports their validity. If the results differ then this can lead to further research to enhance our understanding.

Answer 327

Most qualitative analysis aims to be inductive or 'bottom-up-' - the categories ('themes) that emerge are based in the data. The categories/themes may lead to new theories (called 'emergent theory') Using a bottom-up approach ensures that this 'order' emerges from the data themselves rather than any preconceptions.

Answer 328

A less common approach is a deductive or 'top' down one where the researcher starts with preset categories/themes. Such categories are likely to be generated by previous theories/research. The researcher would aim to see if the data are consistent with the previous theoretical viewpoint.

Answer 329

1. Read and reread (or look at) the data transcript dispassionately (no notes), trying to uderstand the meaning communicated and the perspective of the PP 2. Break the data into meaningful units- small bits of test that independently convey meaning 3. Assign a label or code to each unit, these are the intial categories that you are using. Each unit may be given more than one code/label. IN a top-down approach, categories will be provided by existing theories 4. Combine simple codes into larger categories/themes 5. A check can be made on the emergent categories by collecting a new set of data and applying the categories- they should ift well if t hey represent the topic area investigated 6 Final report should discuss and use quotes/other material to illustrate the emergent themes 7. Conclusions can be drawn, which may include new theories.

Answer 330

1. Easier to analyse because data in numbers | 2. Produces neat conclusions

Answer 331

1. OVersimplifies reality and human experience (statistically significant but humanly insignificant)

Answer 332

1. Represents the true complexities of human behaviour 2. Gains access to thoughts and feelings which may not be assessed using quantitative methods with closed questions 3. Provides rich detail

Answer 333

1. Difficult to summarise 2. More difficult to detect patterns and draw conclusions 3. Analysis Can be affected by personal expectations and beliefs (although quantitative methods are equally affected by bias) 4. Time consuming

Answer 334

The loss of participants from a study over time, which is likely to leave a biased sample or a smple that is too small.

Answer 335

The effects of being born at about the same time, exposed to the same events in society, and influenced by the same demographic trends and thus, having similar experiences that make the group unique from other groups. Cohort effects are most likely to be a problem during a cross-sectional study as it is difficult to separate effects of developmental changes from cohort effects when examining age effects across a wide range of ages

Answer 336

One group of participants of a young age is compared with another, older group o fparticipants with a view to investigating the effect of age on the behaviour in question

Answer 337

A measure of the strength between two variables

Answer 338

The extent that an experimental situation is realistic

Answer 339

defined as changes in behavior resulting from attention participants believe they are getting from researchers, and not the variable(s) manipulated by the researchers

Answer 340

A technique or theory developed in one culture and then used to study the behaviour of people in a different culture with different norms, values, experiences, etc.

Answer 341

A variable that comes between two other variables that is used to explain the relationship between those two variables

Answer 342

A means of assessing the validity of a psychological test by demonstrating the extent to which performance ont he test measures an identified underlying construct.

Answer 343

The effect of an interviewer's expectations, communicated unconsciously, or a respondent's behaviour

Answer 344

A general term used to acknowledge the fact that participants react to cues in an experimental situation, and that this may affect the validity of any conclusions drawn from the investigation

Answer 345

Characteristics of individual participants that might influence the outcome of a study

Answer 346

A means of assessing the validity of a psychological test by correlating the results of the test with some later behaviour; the ability to predict something it should theoretically be able to predict

Answer 347

Taking a random sample of the population and introducing them to the research including deception, if they agree that it would be ok then we can generalise from this to the general population

Answer 348

Obtaining prior consent of the participant to see if they would take part in a study that involved deception. If they agree then it would be ok to include them in future research involving deception

Answer 349

Situational Variables are factors in the environment that can unintentionally affect the results of a study. Such variables include noise, temperature, odors, and lighting.