Aggression

Question 1

Neural and hormonal mechanisms

The limbic system

Answer 1

Network of structures in the brain (including the amygdala and hypothalamus) which are thought to be closely involved in regulating emotional behaviour including aggression

Question 2

Neural and hormonal mechanisms

Serotonin

Answer 2

Neurotransmitter with widespread inhibitory effects throughout the brain. Normal levels in the orbitofrontal cortex are linked with reduced neuron firing, which leads to greater control. If serotonin decreases and disrupts this mechanism, levels of impulsive behaviour including aggression will increase.

Question 3

Neural and hormonal mechanisms

Testosterone

Answer 3

Hormone from the androgen group that regulates social behaviour by its influence on certain areas of the brain. There is a positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggressive behaviour (Dolan et al).

Question 4

Neural and hormonal mechanisms

Negatives

Answer 4

Studies suggest the amygdala functions with the orbitofrontal cortex, which isn’t in the limbic system. The OFC is thought to be involved in self-control, impulse regulation and inhibition of aggressive behaviour. Emil Coccaro et al stated that in patients with psychiatric disorders featuring aggression, activity of the OFC is reduced, disrupting its impulsive control function which increases aggression. This combined with the findings of Gospic et al shows regulation of aggression is highly complex and involves at least 3 neural structures: amygdala, OFC and the connection between the two.

Question 5

Genetic factors

Twin studies

Answer 5

Suggest heritability accounts for about 50% of the variance in aggressive behaviour. Coccaro et al studied MZ and DZ twins for aggressive behaviour. They found concordance rates for direct physical assault were 50% for MZ twins and 19% for DZ twins. For verbal aggression the figures were 28% and 7%.

Question 6

Genetic factors

Adoption studies

Answer 6

Similarities in aggressive behaviour between an adopted child and their biological parents suggests genetic factors are operating. Rhee and Waldman carried out a meta-analysis of adoption studies of direct aggression and antisocial behaviour. They found genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variance in aggression, in line with the results of twin studies.

Question 7

Genetic factors

The MAOA gene

Answer 7

Monoamine oxidase is an enzyme which breaks down neurotransmitters. The production of this enzyme is determined by the MAOA gene. A dysfunction in the operation of this gene can lead to abnormal activity of the MAOA enzyme which will affect serotonin levels. Brunner et al studied 28 males involved in aggressive violent criminal behaviours. They found these men had abnormally low levels of MAOA in their brains and the low activity version of the gene. Gregory Stuart et al studied 97 men who were part of a batterer treatment programme due to inflicting IPV. Men with the low activity MAOA gene were the most violent. They engaged in the highest levels of physical and psychological aggression and inflicted the worst injuries on their partners.

Question 8

Genetic factors

Negatives

Answer 8

Likely that other genes involved. Shown in the study by Stuart et al. IPV in men was associated with the serotonin transporter gene which influences serotonin activity in the brain, as well as being associated with low MAOA activity. The combination of these two factors lead to the development of more aggressive behaviours, supporting the fact that the MAOA gene isn’t a full genetic explanation.

Question 9

The ethological explanation

Adaptive functions

Answer 9

Beneficial to survival because when members of the species are forced to establish new territory they spread out over a wider area which reduces competition pressure and the possibility of starvation. Also establishes dominance hierarchies, which is adaptive as dominance over others brings benefits such as the power to get your own way and resources.

Question 10

The ethological explanation

Ritualistic aggression

Answer 10

Aggressive encounters usually consist of periods of ritualistic signalling, not physical damage (Lorenz). Confrontations end with ritual appeasement displays, which indicate acceptance of defeat and inhibit aggressive behaviour.

Question 11

The ethological explanation

IRPs and FAPs

Answer 11

IRMs are built in physiological processes or structures in the brain. Environmental stimuli trigger the IRM which releases a specific sequence of behaviours (a FAP). FAPs have 6 features: universal, stereotyped, unaffected by learning, ballistic, single purpose and a response to an identifiable specific sign stimulus.

Question 12

The ethological explanation

Positives

Answer 12

Evidence supports the idea that aggression is an innate behaviour. Brunner et al showed the low activity variant of the MAOA gene is closely associated with aggression in humans, which suggests an innate basis for aggression. There is also evidence that activity in the limbic system can trigger aggressive behaviour in humans and other animals. This supports the validity of the ethological explanation because the studies suggest a genetic and physiological basis of aggression.

Question 13

The ethological explanation

Negatives

Answer 13

Evidence against ritualistic aggression. Goodall observed chimpanzees which demonstrated behaviour against the view that aggression is relatively physically harmless. Male chimps from one community set about systematically slaughtering all the members of another group. This was done in a coordinated and premediated way. Sometimes a victim was held down to be hit and bit in an attack lasting up to 20 minutes. The violence wasn’t inhibited despite signals of appeasement and defencelessness.

Question 14

Evolutionary explanations

Sexual jealousy

Answer 14

Male never be sure if they fathered a child. Paternal uncertainty is a result of the threat of male cuckoldry, or having to raise offspring that are not his own. This wastes resources and doesn’t aid survival of the father’s genes. Men in evolutionary past who avoided cuckoldry reproduced more successfully, so psychological mechanisms evolved in men which increase anti-cuckoldry behaviours. Eg. sexual jealousy leads to the use of aggressive strategies to retain partners.

Question 15

Evolutionary explanations

Mate retention strategies

Answer 15

Wilson & Daly
Direct guarding (male vigilance over partner’s behaviour)
Negative inducements (threats of dire consequences for infidelity)

Question 16

Evolutionary explanations

Intimate partner violence

Answer 16

Shackelford et al
Strong positive correlation found between men’s reports of mate retention behaviours ams women’s reports of their partner’s physical violence. Men who used guarding or negative inducements were more likely to use physical violence.

Question 17

Evolutionary explanations

bullying

Answer 17

Bullying occurs due to a power imbalance. Evolutionary ancestors used bullying as an adaptive strategy to increase survival chances by promoting health. Volk et al argue characteristics of bullying are attractive, suggesting strength, dominance and acquisition of resources in males. it also wards off potential rivals. These characteristics therefore increase access to females and decrease chances of threat from competing males. This makes the behaviour naturally selected as it increases rate of reproduction. Female bullying usually occurs in relationships to control a partner. Women use bullying behaviour to secure their partner’s fidelity and ensure they continue providing for their offspring.

Question 18

Evolutionary explanations

Positives

Answer 18

accounts for gender differences. Males often engage in more aggressive behaviours than females. Campbell argued a female with offspring is less likely to be aggressive as it would endanger the survival of her and he offspring. it is more adaptive for females to use verbal aggression to retain a partner who provides resources, and to avoid physical aggression which can be life threatening.

Question 19

Evolutionary explanations

Negatives

Answer 19

methodological issues. extremely difficult to test hypotheses about the evolution of behaviours to solve problems of adaptation in our evolutionary past. Most research is therefore correlational, for example finding associations between mate retention behaviours and aggression. It doesn’t allow us to draw cause and effect conclusions.

Question 20

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Answer 20

Frustration always leads to aggression, and aggression is always the result of frustration (Dollard). based on the psychodynamic concept of catharsis, and views aggression as a psychological drive. If attempts to reach a goal are blocked by external factors we experience frustration. This creates an aggressive drive which leads to aggressive behaviour. Aggression isn’t always directed to the source of frustration because: the cause may be abstract, too powerful and hold a risk of punishment, or unavailable at the time. The aggression is displaced onto an alternative.

Question 21

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Research

Answer 21

(Russell Green)
Male uni students had to complete a jigsaw in 3 conditions: jigsaw impossible, run out of time due to interfering confederate, or insulted by confederate. The participants then gave electric shocks to the confederate. Insulted participants gave the highest shock, and impossible task participants the lowest. All gave more intense shocks than a non-frustrated control group.

Question 22

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Environmental cues

Answer 22

Frustration creates a readiness for aggression, but the presence of aggressive cues in the environment makes acting on this much more likely (Berkowitz).
Berkowitz & LePage arranged for students to be given shocks in a lab, the participants then had the opportunity to shock the confederate. In one condition 2 guns were next to the shock machine, and an average of 6 shocks was given. With no guns present the average was 4.7. This weapons effect supports Berkowitz’s contention that aggressive environmental cues stimulate aggression.

Question 23

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Positives

Answer 23

research support. Marcus-Newhall et al conducted a meta-analysis of 49 studies of displaced aggression. These investigated situations where aggressive behavior had to be directed against a target other than the one causing the frustration. They concluded displaced aggression is a reliable phenomenon. Participants who were provoked but not able to retaliate against the source were significantly more likely to aggress against an innocent party than people who were not provoked, which supports the hypothesis.

Question 24

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Negatives

Answer 24

frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression, and aggression can occur without frustration. Berkowitz reformulated the theory and argued aggression is one of many stimuli that create negative feelings. Aggressive behavior is triggered by negative feelings generally rather than specifically frustration. The outcome of frustration can also be a range of responses. Eg the frustration experienced after failing a test might be despair, anxiety or determination, not aggression.

Question 25

Social learning theory

Answer 25

Aggression is learned directly through conditioning, reinforcement and punishment, and indirectly through observation and vicarious reinforcement.

Question 26

Social learning theory

Cognitive control of aggressive behaviour

Answer 26

Bandura pointed out 4 cognitive conditions required for observational learning:
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation

Question 27

Social learning theory

Self efficacy

Answer 27

The extent to which we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal. A child’s confidence in their ability to be aggressive grows as they learn aggression can bring rewards.

Question 28

Social learning theory

Positives

Answer 28

Poulin and Boivin- supporting research
Most aggressive boys form friendships with other aggressive boys. Researchers described these cliques as training grounds for antisocial behaviour. Relationships were lasting, stable and mutually reinforcing of aggression. They used their alliances to gain resources through aggressive behaviour, so were frequently exposed to physical aggression and the positive consequences of it. Approval of the gang also reinforced aggression.

Question 29

Social learning theory

Negatives

Answer 29

Can’t explain all aggression
Children experienced in proactive aggression have high levels of self efficacy (confident their behaviour will bring benefits). They use aggression to achieve goals which is explained by SLT. Reactively aggressive children use aggression to retaliate in the heat of the moment. They are hostile, suspicious of others, and only use aggression for retribution. This isn’t well explained from a SLT perspective and may be better explained by Berkowitz’s negative affect theory

Question 30

De-individuation

Role of self awareness

Answer 30

Prentice-Dunn and Rogers stated that the likelihood of aggression isn’t due to anonymity itself, but due to the consequences of it. The process is explained through self awareness.
Private self awareness concerns how we pay attention to our own feelings and behaviour. It reduces in crowds as attention is focused outwardly and we pay less attention to our own beliefs.
Public self awareness

Question 31

De-individuation

Role of self awareness

Answer 31

Prentice-Dunn and Rogers stated that the likelihood of aggression isn’t due to anonymity itself, but due to the consequences of it. The process is explained through self awareness.
Private self awareness concerns how we pay attention to our own feelings and behaviour. It reduces in crowds as attention is focused outwardly and we pay less attention to our own beliefs.
Public self awareness concerns how much we care about what others think of our behaviour. This also reduces in crowds as behaviour is more anonymous and less likely to be judged by others.

Question 32

De-individuation

research

Answer 32

David Dodd asked students what they would do if they could do anything without being detected or held responsible. Three independent raptors who didn’t know the hypothesis arranged the responses into categories of antisocial behaviour.

Question 33

De-individuation

research

Answer 33

David Dodd asked students what they would do if they could do anything without being detected or held responsible. Three independent raptors who didn’t know the hypothesis arranged the responses into categories of antisocial behaviour. He found 36% of responses involved antisocial behaviour, 26% were criminal acts. Only 9% were prosocial behaviours.

Question 34

De-individuation

Positives

Answer 34

Douglas and McGarty- research support
Looked at aggressive online behaviour in chatrooms and over instant messaging. Found strong correlation between anonymity and sending threatening/hostile messages. Most aggressive messages sent by those who chose to keep their real identity hidden. Suggests a link between anonymity, de-individuation and aggression in a context which is more relevant today.

Question 35

De-individuation

Negatives

Answer 35

Gergen et al- lack of support
Left mea lone in a dark room for an hour with no rules. They couldn’t identify each other and told they’d never meet again. Soon they started kissing and touching each other intimately. When participants were told they would meet afterwards, these behaviours reduced dramatically. Of all behaviours de-individuation could have lead to in this study, aggression wasn’t one.

Question 36

Institutional aggression in prisons

Dispositional explanations Research

Answer 36

DeLisi and colleagues
Studied inmates with negative dispositional features such as experiences of childhood trauma, high anger/irritability levels, history of substance abuse and history of violent behaviour. They found these inmates were more likely to engage in suicidal activity and sexual misconduct and committed more acts of physical violence compared with a control group with fewer negative dispositions.

Question 37

Institutional aggression in prisons

Situational explanations

Answer 37

Deprivation model (Donald Clemmer)
Institutional aggression is due to environmental factors (deprived of freedom, independence, goods and services, safety, and heterosexual intimacy).

Question 38

Institutional aggression in prisons

Situational explanations

Answer 38

Deprivation model (Donald Clemmer)
Institutional aggression is due to environmental factors (deprived of freedom, independence, goods and services, safety, and heterosexual intimacy). This deprivation of goods increases competition among inmates to acquire them so increases aggression. The prison regime is unpredictable and often uses 'lock ups' to control behaviour, which can cause frustration, reduces stimulation by barring more interesting activities and reduces further access to goods.

Question 39

Institutional aggression in prisons

Situational explanations Research

Answer 39

Benjamin Steiner
Inmate on inmate violence more common in prisons where there were more female staff, african-american inmates, hispanic inmates, and inmates in protective custody for their own safety. These characteristics are individual to prisoners and could predict aggressive behaviour inline with the deprivation model.

Question 40

Institutional aggression in prisons

Dispositional explanation evaluation

Answer 40

Camp and Gaes- research support
studied inmates with similar dispositions to aggression. Half placed in low security prisons and half in high. 33% from low security prisons and 36% from high security prisons involved in aggressive misconduct in 2 years. Isn’t statistically significant so researchers concluded features of prison environment are less important predictors of aggression that characteristics.

John Dilulio- alternative explanation
importation model is inadequate as ignores roles of prison officials and how prisons are run. Proposed Administrative control model (poorly managed prisons are more likely to experience more serious inmate violence). This is due to weak/indecisive leadership, informal/unofficial rules, distant staff and few opportunities for education. According to ACM these are more accurate predictors of aggression.

Question 41

Institutional aggression in prisons

Situational explanation evaluation

Answer 41

Cunningham et al- research support
Analysed inmate homicides in Texas prisons and found motivations for the behaviours were linked to deprivations identified by Clemmer. Most important were arguments over drugs, gay relationships and personal possessions. These factors are predicted by the model to make aggression more likely, so support its validity.

Hensley et al- contradictory research
Deprivation model predicts lack of freedom and heterosexual contact leads to aggression. Hensley studied inmates in prisons which allow conjugal visits and found no link between these visits and reduced aggressive behaviour. Shows situational factors don’t affect prison violence.

Question 42

Media influences: effects of computer games

Longitudinal studies

Answer 42

Robertson et al
Measured TV viewing hours of adults in New Zealand at regular intervals up to 26 yrs. Time spent watching TV was a reliable predictor of aggression in adulthood in terms of convictions for aggressive/violent crimes. Watching more Tv also increased likelihood of being diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder and having aggressive personality traits. Amount of Tv may be more important in influencing aggressive behaviour no matter whether it is violent or not.

Question 43

Media influences: effects of computer games

Meta analyses

Answer 43

Anderson et al
meta analysis of 136 studies including all methodologies. Exposure to violent games was associated with increase in aggressive behaviours, thoughts and feelings. This was true in collectivist and individualistic cultures.

Question 44

Media influences: effects of computer games

Experimental studies evaluation

Answer 44

Weakness- measures of aggression in lab study can be artificial and unrealistic e.g. the noise task. however it is unethical to allow real aggression to occur secretive methods of measuring aggression must be devised. Aggression in lab settings also involves no fear of retaliation as the experimenter gives implied permission for the participant to be aggressive.

Question 45

Media influences: effects of computer games

Correlational studies evaluation

Answer 45

Weakness- inability to draw cause and effect conclusions. No variables manipulated/controlled and no random allocation of participants to violent/non violent media conditions. Socialisation hypothesis- aggressive media causes aggressive behaviour, selection hypothesis- aggressive people select aggressive media. The direction of casualty can’t be settled by correlational studies.

Question 46

Media influences: effects of computer games

Longitudinal studies evaluation

Answer 46

Vulnerable to the effects of confounding variables. Other sources of aggression interact with media influences over time e.g.. role models such as friends and family. It is difficult to separate variables and assess their individual contributions to aggressive behaviour.

Question 47

Media influences: desensitisation

Answer 47

Normally sympathetic nervous system is aroused while viewing violent actions. After repeated viewing of violent media people become habituated to the effects. A usually aversive stimulus has a diminishing impact which reduces anxiety and arousal on repeated viewing. Repeated viewing also promoted the belief that aggression is a socially acceptable way to resolve conflict. Negative attitudes to violence weaken, less empathy is felt and injuries are dismissed.
Weisz and Earls
Showed participants a film with a graphic rape scene. Then watched a reenactment of a rape trial. Compared with those who watched a non sexually violent film, viewers showed greater acceptance of rape myths and sexual aggression. They expressed less empathy and were less likely to find the defendant guilty.

Question 48

Media influences: disinhibition

Answer 48

There are powerful social and psychological inhibitions against using aggression to resolve conflicts. These are learned directly and indirectly by SLT. These usual restraints are loosened after exposure to violent media. Aggressive behaviour seems more normative and socially acceptable in such media, especially as it minimises the effects of violence and suggests it is justified. Video games often reward for violence and minimise its effects, creating new social norms in the player.

Question 49

Media influences: cognitive priming

Answer 49

Repeated viewing of violent media leaves us with a ‘script’ of how these situations ‘play out’. Houseman states these scripts are stored in the memory so we can become primed to be aggressive. The script is triggered automatically when we encounter aggressive situations.
Fischer and Greitmeyer
males listened to songs with aggressively derogatory lyrics about women. Compared with when they listened to neutral lyrics, they recalled more negative qualities about women and were more aggressive to a female confederate.

Question 50

Media influences: desensitisation

Evaluation

Answer 50

Krahé et al
Showed participants film clips while measuring physiological arousal using skin conductance. Habitual viewers of violent media showed less arousal watching the violent film clip. Also reported higher pleasant arousal and lower anxious arousal. Lower arousal was correlated with unprovoked aggression in a noise blast test. This confirms lower arousal in violent media viewers reflects desensitisation to the effects of violence, and greater willingness to be aggressive.

Question 51

Media influences: disinhibition

Evaluation

Answer 51

Berkowitz and Alioto
Participants who saw a film depicting aggression as vengeance gave more electric shocks of longer duration to a confederate. This suggests media violence disinhibits aggressive behaviour when it is presented as justified. Justified violence is more likely to be seen as socially acceptable. This adds validity to the disinhibition concept as it demonstrates a link between removal of social constraints and aggression.

Question 52

Media influences: cognitive priming

Evaluation

Answer 52

Life saving benefits to understanding how cognitive priming influences aggression in real life settings. Whether situations end in violence depends on how cues are interpreted. This depends on cognitive scripts.
Bushman and anderson
Habitual violent media viewers access stored aggressive scripts more readily. They are more likely to interpret cues aggressively, resort to violent solutions and fail to consider alternatives.
This shows how violent media could trigger aggression through he priming of cognitive scripts. Interventions could reduce aggressive behaviour by challenging cognitive biases and encouraging violent media viewers to to consider alternatives to aggression.