aggression Flashcards
1
Q
What are self efficacy expectancies (in relation to aggression)?
A
Our confidence in our ability to, for example, be aggressive
2
Q
How do self efficacy expectancies affect aggression?
A
Children who have not been very good at aggressive behaviour in the past will develop low self efficacy expectancy- so will try to resolve conflict in other ways
3
Q
SLT of aggression attention?
A
Children learn aggressive behaviour through identification with role models. Children observe the behaviour and the outcome of that behaviour and retain this expectancy of that behaviour’s outcome
4
Q
SLT of aggression retention?
A
After noticing behaviour, child stores mental representations of observed aggressive behaviour for later use (as well as expectancies of future outcomes)
5
Q
SLT of aggression reproduction and motivation?
A
Child may imitate aggressive behaviour depending on self efficacy expectancy and consequences observed. If high SE and/or behaviour is vicariously rewarded more likely to reproduce behaviour
6
Q
AO3 SLT: methodological issues?
A
Studies e.g. Bandura’s study used an unrealistic task, demand characteristics. The study findings tell little about real aggression- espescially towards real people
7
Q
AO3 SLT: Real world support for SLT predictions?
A
Huesman: longitudinal study of large group of children. Found correlation between viewing violent TV and later adult aggression. More identification with same-sex violent model, higher the likelihood of later aggression.
Suggests long-term impact of SLT on aggressive behaviour in real life.
8
Q
AO3 SLT: explanation of cultural differences in aggression?
A
e.g. aggression is rare in !Kung San tribe (Kalahari desert) children. Parents don’t use physical punishment and aggression is avoided and devalued by the society. So showing that role models can decrease/affect violent behaviour.
9
Q
AO3 SLT: real life applications?
A
If aggression is learnt it can be modified. ACT against violence (USA) educates parents about dangers of providing aggressive role models. Weymouth and Howe found parents decreased physical punishment after programme. So, SLT principles can be applied to campaigns to reduce aggression
10
Q
Overall evaluation of SLT in aggression?
A
SLT focuses on nurture, but for a full understanding we need to consider how nature and nurture interact. SLT is still only a partial explanation of aggression.
11
Q
What is deindividuation?
A
the loss of one’s sense of personal identity- we use it to refer to a form of aggression that occurs in a group
12
Q
What is the difference between individuated and deindividuated behaviour?
A
Individuated behaviour (rational conforms to social norms) De-individuated behaviour (which does not)
13
Q
What factors contribute to deindividuation?
A
anonymity and altered consciousness
14
Q
What is deindividuation theory?
A
Zimbardo- when people lose their personal identity and inhibitions about violence when they join crowds or large groups
15
Q
Why does being in a large group affect aggression?
A
Provides a ‘cloak of anonymity’ makes the individual feel less accountable for their actions- (can explain football hooliganism, genocide and mob violence)
16
Q
What psychological consequences does being anonymous and unidentifiable in a crowd have for aggression?
A
Reduces inner restraints, increases behaviours that are usually inhibited i.e. aggression because they go against social norms
Reduces fear of being judged negatively by others
Leads to less guilt
17
Q
What was Zimbardo’s research illustrating de-individuation?
A
Migram like experiment. Teacher’s either: individuated- name tags and normal clothing OR de-individuated no name, big lab coats and hoods. The latter gave more shocks
Concluded that anonymity increases aggression
18
Q
What are the neural mechanisms involved in aggression?
A
Limbic system and serotonin
19
Q
What is the hormonal mechanism involved in aggression?
A
Testosterone
20
Q
What does the limbic system consist of?
A
Hyothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala
21
Q
What structures in the limbic system are associated with aggression?
A
The sub-cortical structures are associated with emotional behaviour including aggression
22
Q
How is the amygdala linked to aggression?
A
Over-reactivity of amygdala linked to agg. as it is vital in interpreting/responding to environmental threats.
If certain parts of amygdala are stimulated an animal responds with snarling- and is same areas are removed aggression response is eliminated
23
Q
What is the interaction between nature and nurture in controlling aggression? nurture affecting nature
A
As we develop we learn to control aggression, as children are taught to share + not be violent the neural connection between Prefrontal cortex (control of behaviour) & limbic system is strengthened
24
Q
What did Flynn find in relation to the hypothalamus and aggression?
A
That stimulating the hypothlamus in cats increases ‘viscous attack’ behaviour.
Other animal trials also show role of amydala +hypothalamus
human case studies of brain damage etc also show their role
25
What is the hippocampus involved in and how is this evolutionary affective?
involved in formation of LTM-
e.g. when an animal comes across an animal that has previously attacked them - it will hold this memory + respond appropriately
26
How can the hypothalamus become a hindrance in aggression control?
When it's impaired it can cause inappropriate aggression response as they cannot put the stimuli they come across into the correct context.
e.g. many habitual offenders have been found to have an impaired hippocampus
27
How can serotonin affect aggression?
Serotonin has a calming, inhibitory effect on neural mechanisms. When serotonin levels are low aggression is more likely.
28
What is one piece of evidence for the role of serotonin in humans?
Mann: gave 35 healthy pps a serotonin reducing drug and assessed hostility levels using a questionnaire.
Results showed that the drug increased aggression scores in males but not females.
29
What is the role of testosterone in aggression?
Testosterone: male sex hormone. Levels peak in young males, then decline.
Influences brain areas involved in aggression
High levels = difficulty controlling aggression
Increased testosterone in several species leads to greater aggression; castration results in lower aggression.
May explain why males more aggressive
30
What animal evidence is there to support role of aggression?
Wagenaar et al: found if male mouse is castrated aggression reduces. If then given testosterone, aggression increases again.
31
What human evidence is there to support role of testosterone in aggression?
Dabbs: measured testosterone in saliva of violent & non-violent criminals.
Highest levels of testosterone found in violent criminals & lowest levels in non-violent criminals
32
What are the strengths of the role of neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression? (AO3)
Amygdala's role backed by research, role of hippocampus supported by MRIs of hippocampal asymmetry, some support for serotonin deficiency hypothesis, understanding role of serotonin has led to treatment, role of testosterone supported by many studies
33
What are the limitations of the role of neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression? (AO3)
Role of testosterone challenged by some studies failing to show rship between it and aggr. in humans
Issue of cause and effect- most supporting data is correlational
34
What support is there for the amygdala's role in aggression? (AO3)
Pardini: longitudinal study, 56 male pps, varying history of violence. MRI scans showed those with lower amygdala volume showed higher levels of aggression + violence.
Suggests amygdala plays key role in evaluating emotional importance of sensory info
35
What support is there for the role of the hippocampus in aggression? (AO3)
Raine: compared hippocampus of violent criminals using MRI scans. Some caught + convicted as they had acted impulsively. Others not as they had acted more cold/calculatingly.
Found hippocampus in the right + left hemispheres different size in convicted violent criminals but not in unconvicted violent criminals.
36
How could hippocampal asymmetry lead to violence?
Imbalance (or asymmetry) may have impaired the ability of hippocampus and amygdala to work together, resulting in incorrect processing of emotional info. This could lead to inappropriate responses
37
What support is there for the serotonin deficiency hypothesis as an explanation for aggression? (AO3)
Reduced serotonin levels in monkeys & dogs associated with increased aggr. (Raleig / Rosada)
Further supported by human studies. Mann: gave 35 healthy pps serotonin reducing drug. Found drug increased aggression in men but not women
38
How has understanding of the role of serotonin been useful in developing treatment? (AO3)
Antidepressant medication (which raises serotonin levels) does decrease irritability & impulsive aggression.
39
How is the role of testosterone in aggression supported by many studies? (AO3)
Wagner: found aggr. (biting attacks) reduced when male mice castrated. Then increased again if mice injected with testosterone.
Whilst animal study findings may not generalise to humans, similar results found.
Dabbs: measured testosterone in saliva in violent and non-violent criminals. Highest levels testosterone found violent criminals & lowest non-violent criminals
40
How has the role of testosterone been challenged by by studies failing to find relation between it and human aggression? (AO3)
Some research shown no correlation between testosterone + actual violence in male prison inmates.
Mazur: suggests testosterone may promote status-seeking behaviour: aggression is just one type. E.g. others may use wealth to achieve a high status.
41
How is cause and effect an issue for the neural and hormonal explanation of aggression? (AO3)
Most evidence correlational.
Can experimentally manipulate variables in animals (e.g. castrate mice or remove areas of the amygdala) but not ethical in humans.
Correlations only demonstrate relationship between two variables. A third factor could cause relationship.
42
What did he "finnish study" research inrelation to genetic factors of aggression?
bred mice for aggr., took aggr. mice (measured by biting behaviour) and non-aggr. + bred them.
By 19th generation measured biting again.
Aggr. showed biting behaviour 52% time and non-aggr. just 5%. Suggesting aggr. can be inherited.
43
What did Coccaro's study show about genetic influence of aggression?
Examined concordance rate for criminal behaviour (aggr.) in twins: MZ: 50% DZ: 19%
However... MZs look the same so may be more likely to be treated as 'one' - higher concordance could be due to nurture
44
What did Hutchings and Mednick's study into genetic influence on aggression show?
Studied 14, 000 adoptions in Denmark. Found significant numbers of adopted boys with criminal convictions had bio parent (usually father) also with criminal convictions.
45
What did Miles and Crey find in their research into the genetic influence on aggression?
Meta-analysis: 24 twin + adoption studies. Studies either used observation or parent/pp self-reports to measure aggr. behaviour. Found strong genetic component: MZ - 32% average, DZ- 14%
46
What gene is sometimes associated with aggression?
MAOA gene
47
What is the function of the MAOA gene?
Produces enzyme- monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) associated with aggr. MAOA regulates metabolism of serotinin in the brain. Low levels of serotonin= aggressive
48
What is Brunner's evidence for MAOA gene influence on aggression?
Studied Dutch family in which males very violent. Found males had abnormally low MAOA and a defect on their X chromosome of this gene
49
What is MAOA-L?
Some ppl inherit MAOA-L - low activity version of the gene, disrupts serotonin metabolism in the brain and associated with aggression
50
What did Caspi's study on the MAOA gene find?
Studied 500 male children, found MAOA variant linked to aggr. Those with MAOA-L more likely to show antisocial behaviour. MAOA-H (high)- the opposite.
But antisocial behaviour only occired in MAOA-L males maltreated as children. Nurture-nature interaction
51
How is the involvement of MAOA gene in serious violent behaviour supported by research? (AO3)
Tuhoren: Found prisoners with MAOA-L gene in conjunction with another gene were most violent, whereas no-violent prisoners didn't have that gene combination. Implicates MAOA-L gene influence in aggr. behaviour
52
How may the MAOA gene explain gender differences in aggression? (AO3)
MAOA mutation linked to X chromosome. As women have 2 X chromosomes, they are less likely to be affected by X chromosome mutations as second X chromosome may be dominant
53
What is an issue with the study of MAOA gene linked to violent criminals? (AO3)
Most studies into MAOA focused on this group. Represents a very small sample of population- so sample may be biased and is certainly limited. Care needs to be taken drawing conclusions about role of genetic factors as sample may not be representative of total violent population.
54
How is assessing aggression an issue for studies into genetic influence of aggression? (AO3)
Research often uses self-report or observations and method used can affect results. e.g. Miles + Carey self-report showed stronger genetic link than observational methods. This inconsistency makes it hard to assess role of genetic factors.
55
Why is it difficult to determine the exact roll of genetic factors in aggression? (AO3)
Concordance rates in MZ twins are -at their highest- 50% despite genetic similarity underlining the influence of separate influencing factors.
56
What is ethology?
study of animal behaviour in natural settings
57
What do ethologists suggest as the reason for aggression?
It is adaptive + promotes survival, potential for aggr. is innate but actual agr. behaviour triggered by env. stimuli- 'releasers' Aggr. behaviour has survival value to distribute individuals/promote species survival- efficient use of resources.
58
What is the difference between fixed action patterns and ritualistic aggression?
RA doesn't follow specific pattern instead affected by opponent's response. FAP automatic response goes on to completion even if threat removed.
59
What is ritualistic aggression?
Some aggressive behaviour is ritualised in the form of threat displays. Shows of strength involving much signalling.
60
What is the purpose of ritualistic aggression?
makes actual aggr. less likely (less costly). e.g. gorilla pounds chest to make opponent back down. Found in human tribal warfare too.
61
What is instinctive inhibition?
Lorenz: suggested this prevents predators using natural weapons (against own species.) Instead loser uses appeasement signals- stops further aggr. indicates acceptance of defeat.. Prevents threat to survival of species
62
What are fixed action patterns?
Tinbergen: argues all members of same species have innate behaviours that occur in certain conditions (FAPs) Aggr. occurs in response to specific stimulus (sign stimulus) triggers innate releasing mechanism (IRM) -neural mechanism.
63
How are fixed action patterns triggered?
Sensory recognition circuits notice sign stimulus, alerts IRM, IRM communicates with motor control circuits to release FAP associated with sign stimulus.
64
What are the characteristics of fixed action patterns?
Stereotyped- behaviour always occurs same way, universal- same in all species members, innate- no learning involved, ballistic- once triggered can't be stopped, specific triggers fr each FAP
65
What is the key study into FAPs and IRM?
Tinbergen: male sticklebacks (highly territorial in mating season and develop red spot on underbelly) have specific FAP in response to male entering their territory, characterisable by the red spot. ,
66
What were Tinbergen's procedure + findings?
Presented sticklebacks with variety of wooden models of different shapes. Regardless of shape if model had red spot stickleback attacked. If not no aggr. even with realistic model.
Aggr. FAPs always the same and unstoppable to completion once triggered.
67
How does evidence support the universal stereotyped characeristics of FAPs? (AO3)
Its known that most animals respond to pain with aggr. but its form varies by species. e.g. Ulrich: 2 rats given electric shocks will immediately attack each other. This FAP follows predictable sequence involving 'boxing behaviour' unique to rat species.
68
How may FAPs not be as fixed as claimed by Lorenz? (AO3)
May be modified by learning. Lehrman: felt Lorenz underestimated environmental factors in deelopment of species-typical aggressie behaviour patterns. Subtle variations in FAPs among species members suggest FAPs not as fixed as e claimed
69
How may human FAPs no longer be effective/adaptive? (AO3)
Eibl-Eibsfeldt: identified FAPs in humans e.g. eyebrow flash- but suggested as our env. changes so rapidly FAPs such as aggression no longer adaptive as flexible behaviour needed.
Thus FAPs not adaptive in humans
70
How is ritualised aggression seen in humans? (AO3)
Chagnon: among Yanomamo ppl (South America) chest pounding + club fighting contests can settle conflict short of more extreme violence. Thus, even in more violent cultures - as Yanomamo are- rituals have effect of reducing actual aggr. and preventing death.
71
Why is Lorenz's idea of instinctive inhibition not supported by evidence? (AO3)
Goodall: observed 4 yr war in a Tanzania national park. Male chimps from one community systematically slaughtered all members of other group in coordinated way.Violence continued despite victims' appeasement and helplessness. Casts doubts on animal aggr. as ritual 'not real'
72
How may aggression be adaptive?
Useful behaviours/characteristics/that ensure survival, are ‘adaptive’ + will persist + ensure reproduction.
Early humans e.g. securing resources: fighting off competition secures resources- most aggressive/best fighters most likely to flourish/survive to pass on genes
or establishing status through aggr./secure mates + deterring attack + may explain violence against children (adaptive to get rid of others' offspring to create mate opportunities)
73
How may sexual jealousy be evolved in males?
Evolved psychological mechanism to prevent infidelity/ Ensures male doesn't waste resources on other's children. Extreme sexual jealousy linked with aggression
74
What two mate retention strategies are linked with aggression?
Direct guarding and negative inducement
75
What is direct guarding?
designed to restrict a woman's independence and other men's access to her e.g. never leaving her side at a party
76
What is negative inducement?
Designed to make her frightened of leaving e.g. shouting at her for talking to other men
77
What was Shackleford's study into sexual jealousy?
Asked men to report on own use of mate retention strategies + violence, & asked women to report on their partner’s.
Found a positive correlation between use of two types of mate retention strategies (direct guarding / negative inducements) & violence scores.
78
What research backs the link between mate retention strategies and aggression? (AO3)
Wilson et al: Women who agreed with certain questionnaire items e.g. ‘he is jealous and doesn’t want me to talk to other men’ twice as likely to have experienced serious violence from partner.
Dobash & Dobash: Partner’s extreme jealousy cited as key cause of violence by most battered women.
79
What are the evolutionary explanations of warfare?
Although warfare is costly, it also has clear adaptive advantages:
Winning side gains status over another group, giving access to their land, resources + women.
This benefits the individual + their offspring.
80
What did Chagnon's study of the Yanomami tribe in South America reveal about evolutionary explanations for aggression?
Successful male warriors in traditional, tribal societies tend to have more sexual partners and more children (high status).
Suggests they are more attractive to women.
Their aggressive + brave behaviour may also be a signal of good genes to females.
81
What are the evaluation points for evolutionary explanations of aggression? (AO3)
Support for link between sexual jealousy + aggression, can account for gender differences, evidence to support that sexual-jealousy based aggr. has physiological basis, if aggr. behaviours evolutionarily determined- they should be unaffected by cultural influences, real life application, alternative explanations for warfare exist
82
How can the evolutionary explanation account for gender differences in aggression? (AO3)
Men commonly engage in more physical aggressive acts than women. Evolutionary theory suggests: female motivated to be less aggressive- would put offspring at risk. So more adaptive to use verbal aggression. But, possibly sex differences in aggr due to socialisation.
Smetana: found parents more likely to explain to a girl why behaviour is wrong, but to punish boys physically for misbehaviour- might increase male physical violence.
83
What evidence suggests that jealousy-based aggression has an actual physiological basis? (AO3)
Takahashi: found men’s brains react differently to women’s (shown by brain imagining techniques) to jealousy.
When presented with scenes depicting partner’s sexual infidelity, men showed much greater activation in amygdala & hypothalamus (brain areas associated with aggression).
84
What real life application is there from the evolutionary explanation of aggression? (AO3)
Certain mate retention strategies can be an indicator of domestic violence. Knowing this, women/their friends & family can be more alert to danger signs & potentially step in to avoid violence ever happening.
Also educational opportunities, teaching people better strategies to avoid more possessive strategies.
Initiatives such as ‘Clare’s law’, give ppl the right to have info disclosed about a new partner’s past.
85
If aggressive behaviours are evolutionarily determined, then they should be unaffected by cultural influences.
How does this affect the evolutionary explanation for aggression? (AO3)
The explanation would predict aggr. present in all cultures as it increases survival chances via greater reproductive success.
However, !Kung San tribe in Africa has very negative attitudes to use of aggression + discourage it from childhood. As a result aggr. rare in their culture.
Whereas Yanomamo tribe in South America described as ‘the fierce people’. Aggr. there an accepted + required behaviour to gain status.
86
Alternative explanations for warfare do exist- how does this affect the evolutionary explanation for aggression? (AO3)
Chagnon study supports evolutionary explanation of warfare as through warfare tribes get access to land, resources & mate. They have the ability to defend family if they have killed + so more likely to be married. Their aggr/ brave behaviour may also be signal of good genes to females.
But difficult to tell whether warrior behaviour inherited as suggested by evolutionary explanations or passed on culturally.
87
How does Zimbardo's Stanford prison experiment also demonstrate de-individuation?
Anonymity was achieved by: Pps not addressed by name (by number or ‘Mr Correctional Officer’)
Guards wore uniforms & reflective sunglasses(no eye contact), Prisoners wore smocks
Aggression escalated: Reduced inner restraints, pps conformed to group norms & standards rather than own individual norms.
88
What was Johnson and Downing's research into de-individuation?
Milgram-like study: 3 conditions: Ku Klux Klan like costume (aggressive group norm), Nurses’ uniform (kind, helpful group norm), Control group – normal clothes
‘KKK’ gave the most shocks out of all, ‘Nurses’ gave least. Concluded ppl conformed to perceived ‘group norm'
89
What research support is there for Zimbardo’s concept of de-individuation, using more realistic set-ups than Zimbardo’s electric shock study? (AO3)
Rehm: Rehm observed games of ‘handball’ in Germany where one team wore same coloured shirts & other team all wore different coloured shirts.
same-shirted teams showed significantly more aggressive acts than the other team.
90
What anthropological evidence is there for the concept of de-individuation? (AO3)
Watson: collected data on warriors in 23 societies + whether they changed appearance before war, & if they killed, tortured or mutilated their victims.
Warriors who significantly changed appearance, through costumes or war paint, more likely to be highly aggressive towards victims compared with those who did not.
91
How does aggression depend on group norm and the situation we are in? (de-individuation AO3)
Johnson & Downing study
92
How are there gender differences in how people respond to de-individuated conditions? (AO3)
Cannavale and Diener: found in de-individuated situations, increase in aggr. in all-male groups, but not in all-female groups.
Men tend to respond to provocation in more extreme ways than women do.
93
How are the baiting crowd and online trolling are real world illustrations of de-individuated behaviour? (AO3)
Mann: analysed 21 suicide leaps, found in 10 of 21 cases where crowd had gathered, baiting had occurred.
This baiting behaviour tended to happen at night, when crowd was large (anonymous) + some distance from jumper.
Trolling is a similar phenomenon – online trolls are anonymous, feel less fear of retribution, and are not face-to-face with their ‘victims’.
94
What is the frustration aggression hypothesis?
Aggression is the result of frustration. And frustration always leads to some form of aggression
Frustration is caused when our attempt to achieve a goal is blocked by some external factor.
95
What is the basis of the frustration aggression hypothesis?
Hypothesis based on psychodynamic concept of catharsis. Views aggr as psychological drive, similar to biological drives e.g hunger.
Frustration creates aggressive drive, leads to aggressive behaviour.
Is cathartic as aggr created by frustration is satisfied- reducing the drive. (We feel better for having gotten it ‘off our chest’)
96
What is displacement of aggression (caused by frustration)?
Hypothesis recognises sometimes we cannot express aggr directly against source of frustration e.g. if cause of frustration too powerful or not available.
In that case, it's displaced onto weaker & available alternative for catharsis to occur
97
What was Green's study into the frustration-aggression hypothesis?
Pps asked to complete jigsaw puzzle, where level of frustration manipulated by either: making puzzle unsolvable, having confederate interfere – ran out of time, having confederate insult them
Pps then gave electric shocks to confederate when they made a mistake.
Insulted pps gave strongest shocks, followed by interfered group. All 3 groups gave more intense shocks than (non-frustrated) control group.
98
What was Berkowitz's study into frustration aggression hypothesis and role of cues?
Pps given electric shocks by confederate to create anger + frustration. Pps were then asked to give electric shocks to confederate.
One condition there were two guns on table by shock machine. In other, no guns present
Pps gave more electric shocks to confederate when guns present.(av. number 6.07 versus 4.67 in no guns condition)
Suggests presence of aggr env. cues stimulates aggr
99
What is dispositional aggression?
Prison aggression is caused by the characteristics of the prisoners themselves. (Importation Model)
100
What is situational aggression?
Prison aggression is caused by the situation people are put in i.e. the stressful nature of the prison itself.(Deprivation Model)
101
What is Irwin and Cressey's importation model?
Prisoners bring violent pasts to prison, & use them as coping mechanisms.
Aggr therefore not product of institution, but of ppl who enter. Prisoners not ‘blank slates’ when they enter, + normative systems in outside world, e.g. violence- ‘imported’ into prison.
102
What is the 'code of the streets'?
Informal rules about how to behave (incl. violence)
At the heart of code is issue of respect i.e. being granted respect deserved.
This code relates to gang membership + is ‘imported’ into prisons.
103
How can gang membership link to institutional aggression?
Pre-prison gang membership- a strong predictor of aggr, & consistently related to prison violence.
Allender & Marcell:
Gang members engage in prison violence more often than non-gang members.
104
What is the deprivation model?
Prison aggr influenced by prison-specific variables rather than prisoners. Sykes described the specific deprivations as: Loss of liberty, autonomy (can’t make own decisions) & security
Other prison characteristics associated with prisoner aggr: Overcrowding (deprived of privacy), heat, noise,
lack of meaningful activity (boredom)
105
What is the Allen Stanford case study an example of?
Held in a Houston prison for billion dollar fraud.
Assaulted in his cell whilst awaiting trial. Was on telephone, and some people in the cell decided they didn’t like it. 14 men in a cell- designed for max 8.
At the time, no electricity or air con, despite 32 degree heat. Room in virtual darkness.
106
How does the deprivation model relate to the frustration aggression hypothesis?
Stress and frustration caused by being deprived = aggression.
Aggr. can release / reduce stress.
Aggr. allows prisoners to obtain some of things they have lost e.g. status, resources, control.
107
What did Kimmel and Martin find in relation to deprivation model?
Found that prison violence can be a way of avoiding
| the risk of appearing weak or being vulnerable to exploitation
108
What are the evaluation points for the deprivation model? (AO3)
Research support, but link between aggr and situational factors not always supported, real life app. in reducing aggr. in prisons
109
What research support is there for the deprivation model? (AO3)
McCorkle: found situational factors, e.g. overcrowding & lack of meaningful activity, significantly influenced amount of aggr. inmates displayed.
(Includes both inmate-on-inmate assaults & inmate-on-staff assaults)
110
How has the link between aggression and situational factors not been fully supported? (AO3)
Harer & Steffenmeier: collected data from American prisons, including importation variables e.g. race & criminal history, & deprivation variables such as staff-to-prisoner ratios & security levels.
Found only importation variables significant predictors of prison violence.
111
How has the deprivation model had real life applications in reducing aggression in prisons? (AO3)
If most violence occurs in overheated, noisy + overcrowded envs, then decreasing these factors should reduce aggr.
Wilson: did this at HMP Woodhill which housed very violent prisoners, & found large reduction in assaults on prison staff & other inmates.
112
What are the evaluation points for importation model? (AO3)
Research support, but importation model's claims about pre-gang membership questioned
113
What research support is there for importation model? (AO3)
Mears found a ‘code of the street’ belief system affects inmate violence.
This effect is especially noticeable in prisoners who lacked family support and were involved in gangs before they were imprisoned.
114
How have the importation model's claims about pre-gang membership questioned? (AO3)
DeLisi found prisoners with prior street gang involvement no more likely than others to behave aggressively in prison.
Could, however, be explained as prisons tend to isolate violent gang members from other prisoners.
Backed by Fisher- found isolating known gang members in special units reduced rate of violence by 50%
115
What four methods do researchers use to investigate the effects of media on aggression?
Experimental studies, correlational evidence, meta analysis, longitudinal evidence
116
What experimental evidence is there for media aggression? (AO1)
Anderson and Dill: pps who played violent computer games gave longer blasts of noise to an opponent then those who played non-violent. Also rated themselves higher on hostility.
(Bandura's Bobo doll study- FILM version)
117
Evaluate experimental evidence for media influences on aggression? (AO3)
+Suggests causal link between violent video games & aggr.
- BUT only shows short term effects- did effect persist?
- Also unrealistic measures for ethical reasons but this tells us little about real-life aggression
118
What correlational evidence is there for media influences on aggression? (AO1)
DeLisi: Found positive correlation between juvenile offenders' aggr behaviour & how often they enjoyed playing violent video games
119
Evaluate correlational evidence for media influences on aggression? (AO3)
+ Overcomes ethical issues + allows investigation of real-life aggr. as its not manipulated
- Can't draw causal conclusions, just shows a link
- family breakdown, abuse, drug use, poverty all still stronger predictors of youth violence
120
What longitudinal evidence is there for media influences on aggression? (AO1)
Huesman/Chicago study: Significant correlation between childhood viewing of violent TV shows & later adult aggr.
The more a child had identified with same-sex role model the more likely to be aggressive later in life
121
Evaluate longitudinal evidence for media influences on aggression? (AO3)
+ goes beyond short term effects- allows to see changes over time
-BUT still correlational + vulnerable to extraneous variables/other factors
122
What meta analysis evidence is there for media influences on aggression? (AO1)
Greitemeyer & Mugge: looked at 98 studies inoling 37,000 pps + found violent video games linked to small increase in aggr. behaviour + reduction in pro-social behaviour + opposite for pro-social games
123
Evaluate meta analysis evidence for media influences on aggression? (AO3)
+ increased sample size. Allows generalisation from findings with more certainty
-BUT will include only published studies + studies more likely to be published if they have significant findings- so may skew analysis
124
What is desensitisation?
If ppl (especially children) repeatedly exposed to violence in TV/gaming, they become habituated to its effect. Has two effects:
Physiological: We become less aroused & anxious when seeing violence.
Psychological: Less likely to notice aggr. in real life. Negative attitudes towards violence weaken & less empathy felt for victims. Become less anxious about violence, making aggr. behaviour more likely.
125
What research support is there for the role of desensitisation? (AO3)
Carnagey: found violent computer games produce physiological desensitisation -reduced physiological arousal. Pps who first played violent computer game had lower heart rate + less sweat activity while viewing 10 mins clip of real-life violence than non-violent game first.
Shows physiological desensitisation can occur after violent media exposure
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However how can desensitisation be useful for some but not others? (AO3)
Bushman + Anderson: found desensitisation to violent media can reduce helping behaviour (e.g. offering to help someone in distress).
BUT can be adaptive for ppl e.g. soldiers- more effective in role if desensitised to horrors of combat.
Although it can cause people to become ‘comfortably numb’ in a negative way, for others, it can be highly adaptive/useful.
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What is disinhibition?
Watching/playing violent media may weaken normal restraints against using violence/legitimise use of violence in real life.
Especially true if media portrayal minimises effects of violence on victims/suggests it is justified.
E.g. video games often show violence rewarded + consequences ignored.
Creates new social norms in viewer + makes them feel less inhibited about behaving aggressively.
128
How may the likelihood of disinhibition depend on other factors e.g age, family environment? (AO3)
Collins: argued young children more likely affected as less likely to consider consequences of violence.
Heath: children who grow up in households with strong norms against violence unlikely to be as affected by disinhibition as children physically punished by parents.
Demonstrates relationship between media violence + disinhibition not straightforward
129
How is disinhibition is less likely in situations where violent behaviour has negative consequences? (AO3)
Goranson: showed ppl boxing match film- either had no consequences or resulted in loser dying.
Pps who didn't see negative consequences more likely to behave aggressively afterwards than who did.
Suggests disinhibition may be more likely when negative consequences of violent media not seen by viewers
130
What is cognitive priming?
Aggr images in media (e.g. guns) as cues for schema or memory of an aggr behaviour.
Exposure to these cues in similar context can trigger memory + lead to aggr behaviour being reproduced. Effect may be specific reproduction of specific aggressive acts, or more general tendency to behave in generally violent way.
131
What was Fischer & Greitemeyer's study into cognitive priming?
Male pps: 1/2 listened to songs with aggr, derogatory lyrics about women, 1/2 neutral lyrics
Men who listened to negative lyrics recalled more negative qualities about women & behaved more aggressively towards female confederate than men w neutral lyrics.
Procedure replicated with female pps using ‘men-hating’ song lyrics, similar results.
132
What research support is there for cognitive priming? (AO3)
Bushman: found pps who watched violent film had faster reaction times to aggr words than who watched non-violent film.
Anderson & Dill: found pps who played violent video games had more aggr thoughts due to priming than pps who played non-violent
133
How is the realism important in cognitive priming? (AO3)
Atkin: found increased aggr only resulted when more realistic violence viewed (opposed to cartoon/animated)
Suggests exposure to media violence primes memories related to aggr, but only if violence is realistic + intense.
134
What are some problems with research into media aggression? (AO3)
Many studies correlational, therefore only show a link.
Often other variables which need to be considered e.g. personality, home environment, pre-existing neuro-physiological abnormalities etc
