Issues and Debates Flashcards

Question

What is environmental reductionism?

Answer 1

Behaviourism: Reduce behaviour to simple stimulus–response links which can be tested and explained using laboratory experiments. (Phobias, Attachment)

Answer 2

Cognitive approach: Compares the human mind to a computer (inputs and outputs etc) Reduces complexity of mind to machine, + so ignores influence of human motivation + emotion e.g. fear on the cognitive system. Therefore may not give us full insight into mental complexities.

Answer 3

Reducing complex behaviour to operationalised variables (IV, DV) that can be manipulated and measured to determine causal relationships

Answer 4

+ Reducing complex behaviour to lowest, simplest form makes it easier to understand (and treat) + Allows detailed look at factors that effect behaviour. +High level of predictive power. +Scientific: Breaking complicated behaviours down to small parts (operationalise variables) means they can be scientifically tested + explanations based on scientific evidence will emerge.

Answer 5

-Ignores complexity of behaviour and can be oversimplified (E.g. Giving ppl medication may miss real cause of a behaviour e.g. family problems) -Focus on a single level of explanation leaves out other levels of explanation – incomplete explanations -Lacks validity (e.g. we can see how the brain responds to particular musical sounds by viewing it in a scanner, but not how you feel)

Answer 6

Gestalt: German for 'whole' Argued when studying human functioning, we need to look at whole person Focused on perception The whole is not simply a sum of its parts. It’s greater than that.

Answer 7

Some aspects of social behaviour only emerge within a group context, and cannot be understood at the level of individual group members (Conformity to social roles, deindividuation)

Answer 8

Rejects reductionism totally. Belief that holism the only valid approach to complete understanding of mind + behaviour. Starting point is self (personal identity) which they consider a functioning whole. Includes awareness of person I 'am' and 'could be'. Lack of identity/‘wholeness’ leads to mental disorder. Successful therapy brings together aspects of ‘whole person’.

Answer 9

+Looks at everything that may impact on behaviour – provides more complete understanding of human behaviour +Considers more than one cause – appreciates humans are complex

Answer 10

- Doesn't allow for detailed study into one area - Non- scientific: often hypothetical & lacks predictive power of more scientific explanations - Over complicates behaviours which may have simple explanation - Neglects importance of biological influences

Answer 11

Very similar just 3 not 4: Highest level: includes cultural + social explanations of how social groups affect behaviour Middle level: includes psychological explanations of behaviour Lower level: biological explanations including hormone and genes.

Answer 12

That humans can make choices about own behaviour + not determined by biological/external forces. We are ‘self-determining’ + free to choose our thoughts /actions. Doesn’t deny there are biological + environmental forces that have influence on our behaviour – but we can reject these forces.

Answer 13

Maslow: our need and motivation to self actualise. Rogers: as long as a person remains controlled by other people/things, they cannot take responsibility for their behaviour & so cannot begin to change.

Answer 14

Behaviour is shaped or controlled by external or internal forces over which we have no control.

Answer 15

There is no free will All behaviour has a cause, and can therefore be predicted This type of determinism is compatible with the aims of science

Answer 16

There is an element of free will Whilst all human action has a cause, there is room for manoeuvre. People have some control over the way they act

Answer 17

``` Biological determinism (genetics, hormones, evolution) Environmental determinism (e.g. how we are treated) Psychic determinism (Freud / unconscious conflicts) ```

Answer 18

The idea that traits and behaviours are governed by internal biological factors like genes, neurochemistry, brain structure and function.

Answer 19

The idea that traits and behaviours are governed by external forces such as experiences, upbringing, learning, schools, parents, peers etc.

Answer 20

The idea that traits and behaviours are governed by unconscious instincts and drives, the cause of behaviour is rooted in childhood experiences

Answer 21

Cognitive approach and social learning approach

Answer 22

We are limited by our mental abilities and the biological processes of the brain (e.g. schemas are automatically activated. NATs – negative automatic thoughts) But we have some free will over our thoughts within these constraints.

Answer 23

We are free to choose who + what we attend to, + when/whether we perform certain behaviours (ARRM) Reciprocal determinism – we are influenced by our environment, but we also exert an influence upon it.

Answer 24

- No behaviour completely biologically or environmentally determined: E.g. MZ twin studies – despite sharing exactly the same genes concordance rates for IQ, mental disorders etc. never 100%. Therefore can't fully explain any behaviour. - Hard determinism challenges our legal system

Answer 25

+Consistent with aims of science & has led to prediction & control of behaviour. Treatments & therapies developed as a result: e.g. drug therapy for mental illnesses. Behaviour management strategies in schools show consistently rewarded positive/punished negative behaviour leads to shaping & control of behaviour. Without determinism behaviour too random to control/predict.

Answer 26

Free will may just be an illusion: Skinner- just because we decide between actions does not = free will. While ppl might ‘choose’ to watch a particular film, their choice actually determined by previous reinforcement. Lack of support from cognitive neuroscience

Answer 27

Neurological studies of decision making have revealed that our brain decides our action a moment before we do. Libet recorded activity in motor regions of the brain, before person had conscious awareness of decision to move finger. The decision to move finger happened after the brain had already activated its motor regions.

Answer 28

Free will has face validity & positive impact on well-being: Roberts: found teenagers with high external locus of control (feeling their lives were decided by events outside their control) had a much greater risk of depression

Answer 29

Behaviour is caused by innate characteristics that have been inherited (Biological factors / evolutionary influences) E.g. Schizophrenia or Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment.

Answer 30

Behaviour is a product of environmental influences | E.g. Classical conditioning of phobias or Bandura’s bobo doll study

Answer 31

The idea that nature and nurture are linked to such an extent that it does not make sense to separate the two, so researchers instead study how they interact and influence each other. e.g. Intelligence is 50% nature and 50% nurture , PKU

Answer 32

PKU is a genetic disorder that stops certain amino acids being metabolised. This leads to brain damage. BUT brain damage can be avoided by following a particular type of diet. Therefore impossible to say whether disorder is caused by nature or by nurture, but makes far more sense to consider the interaction between the two.

Answer 33

Has led to the development of drug therapies to treat psychological problems that have a biological origin e.g. SSRI’s can be used to treat depression.

Answer 34

The nurture approach has led us to focus more on the importance of environmental influences such as the importance of high quality day care.

Answer 35

An extreme nature stance suggests that ‘anatomy is destiny’, which can lead to ‘selective breeding programmes (eugenics) such as the US sterilisation of ‘feeble minded’.

Answer 36

An extreme nurture stance has led to terrible ‘experiments’, such as changing the gender of David Reimer in the belief that gender is entirely learnt.

Answer 37

Meaningless to argue for either nature or nurture | Universally most psychologists agree than interactionist approach is most suitable. E.g. in approaching PKU

Answer 38

Development of diathesis-stress model (support from Tienari sz vulnerability study) Idea of 'nature affects nurture': Plomin: 'passive influence’- parents’ genes influence aspects of their behaviour, creating certain type of environment for their children. Idea of 'nurture affects nature': neural plasticity suggests life experiences shape our biology (Maguire taxi drivers) Role of epigenetics

Answer 39

Focus on the individual and recognition of uniqueness. Private, subjective and conscious experiences. Qualitative methods of investigation.

Answer 40

Focuses on similarities between ppl. Attempts to establish laws + generalisations about ppl. Objective knowledge through scientific methods. Quantitative methods of investigation.

Answer 41

Tends to use qualitative data | Methods of research include: case study, unstructured interviews, self-reports, autobiographies and personal documents.

Answer 42

Humanistic: Focus on person’s subjective experience (unique to them) not on producing general laws about behaviour. Carl Rogers’ person centred therapy Psychodynamic: Freud's use of case studies e.g. Little Hans. Freud did produce generalisations from case studies but are still idiographic as they're drawn from unique individuals

Answer 43

Provides a more complete/global understanding of the individual. Satisfies key aim of science – description + understanding of behaviour. Findings can serve as a source of ideas or hypotheses for later study. The focuses mean the individual feels valued + unique.

Answer 44

Difficult to generalise from detailed subjective knowledge about one person. Often regarded as non-scientific as subjective experience can't be empirically tested. Can’t produce general predictions about behaviour that can be useful for e.g. drug treatment for mental illness. Time consuming

Answer 45

Usually uses experiments and observations. | Group averages are statistically analysed to create predictions about people in general.

Answer 46

Biological approach: Seeks to portray basic principles of how body and brain work. E.g. brain scans done in order to make generalisations about localisations of function Behaviourism: Skinner + behaviourists studied responses of hundreds of rats, pigeons etc in order to develop general laws of learning (CC and OC)

Answer 47

Regarded as scientific as it's: precise measurement; prediction and control of behaviour, investigations of large groups, objective + controlled methods allowing replication + generalisation. Has helped psychology become scientific by developing empirically testable laws + theories

Answer 48

Predictions can be made about groups but may not apply to individuals. Approach accused of losing sight of the ‘whole person’. Gives a superficial understanding – people may act the same but for different reasons Extensive use of controlled laboratory experiments creates lack of generalisation to everyday life

Answer 49

Treating them as ‘either or’ is false and unhelpful Instead they work together. Idiographic can complement nomothetic by shedding further light on general laws or challenging them e.g. using a nomothetic approach, Miller established the capacity of STM. But case study (idiographic) of HM revealed he had intact STM but had problems with his semantic but not procedural memory.

Answer 50

Ethical issues arise when there is a conflict between gaining valuable research and preserving the rights and dignity of pps. Ethical guidelines were established to help protect those involved in research.

Answer 51

Psychologists can control how pps treated pps in study, but can't control: How finding represented in media Impact of their work on public policy or influence on our view of groups in society. Research that may be controversial may have direct social consequences for: pps in research, or group they represent

Answer 52

Produced landmark paper on issues related to socially sensitive research. Identified 4 aspects where important ethical concerns can arise: The research question, conduct of research + treatment of pps, institutional context + interpretation and application of findings

Answer 53

Asking certain questions can pose ethical issues as they may be damaging to particular groups in society e.g. Are there genetic factors in criminality? (Often use twin studies to study extent criminality is inherited.) Asking these questions can: -Add scientific credibility to prejudices -Cause concerns to relatives of criminals

Answer 54

Main issue is confidentiality of info collected e.g. If a pps confesses to a crime, should confidentiality be maintained? If a child is found to be insecurely attached in the Strange Situation, should the mother be told?

Answer 55

Can make pps feel powerless- will affect their behaviour e.g. Milgram study / Yale University / very prestigious. Research may be funded or managed by private institutions who may misuse or misunderstand data e.g. All Trials Campaign

Answer 56

Researchers often have to agree that sponsor can censor data produced- data that harms sales not published. Campaign wants: All research made public All research pre-registered including statement of how data will be analysed. Avoids attempts to process data to make outcome look more favourable to the drug.

Answer 57

Research findings may be used for purposes other than originally intended. IQ tests Bowlby’s research into attachment and maternal deprivation

Answer 58

USA 1920’s and 1930’s: Goddard gave IQ tests to immigrants arriving in New York. Claimed over ¾ Russians, Jews + Italians ‘feeble-minded’- ignored that most had limited English! Led to many states introducing national origin quotas to reduce immigration level from Southern + Eastern Europe. Led to compulsory sterilisation of many citizens based on their being ‘feeble-minded’ + a drain on society.

Answer 59

Resulted in policies encouraging mothers to stay at home rather than going out to work Influenced UK gov’s decision not to offer free child care places for under 5s (despite that this is typical in other European countries) May also have had indirect effect on custody rulings: Previously custody given to fathers Now it's legal ‘norm’ that mothers granted custody of children in divorce cases

Answer 60

One issue with socially sensitive research is wider impact of research itself. There're social consequences for pps in research, but with socially sensitive research there's potential for indirect impact on pps’ family, co-workers + group they represent (e.g. elderly, women, addicts) Therefore important to consider impact on larger group of which the pps is a member.

Answer 61

Could be argued ethical guidelines focus only on pps protection + may not deal with all ways research may inflict harm on groups of ppl. E.g. current guidelines don’t make researchers consider how research may be used by others (recommended by Sieber and Stanley) Therefore, considerations outlined some time ago have not yet been put into professional practice.

Answer 62

Studies of underrepresented groups/issues may promote greater understanding- help reduce prejudice /encourage acceptance. Similarly it's benefitted society e.g. research into the (un)reliability of EWT has reduced risk of miscarriages of justice. (Now can't be found guilty on EWT alone) Suggests socially sensitive research may play valuable role in society.

Answer 63

Researchers could avoid researching sensitive areas as findings may have negative consequences for pps. But, would probably leave psychologists researching unimportant issues. Sieber and Stanley argued this is an avoidance of responsibility by psychologists who have a duty to conduct socially sensitive research.

Answer 64

Another solution to issue of socially sensitive research is to engage with media + policy makers. To reduce the likelihood of misused data, psychologists should be responsible for what happens to their data + should be aware results of research may cause abuse + discrimination. BPS has press centre which aims to promote evidence-based psychological research to the media. But up to individual researchers seeing it as part of research process to promote it in socially sensitive way, rather than neutral position some scientists prefer.