Aggression NEW

Question 1

What are neural mechanisms?

Answer 1

Related to the neuron, such as large neural structures or the actions of neurotransmitters.

Question 2

What are hormonal mechanisms?

Answer 2

How chemical messengers influence the body.

Question 3

What is the limbic system?

Answer 3

A collection of structures in the centre of the brain.
One of its functions is to process emotional responses, such as aggression.

Question 4

Amygdala

Answer 4

Has been identified as being linked to the production of aggressive behaviour.
Gospic - fMRIs show increased amygdala activity during aggressive responses.

Question 5

Hypothalamus

Answer 5

Has a role in integrating and expressing emotional responses.
It can trigger aggressive behaviour as part of the fight or flight response.

Question 6

Orbitofrontal cortex

Answer 6

The OFC controls executive function (decision-making), which attempts to control aggression produced by the limbic system.

Question 7

Serotonin

Answer 7

• Has an inhibitory function in the brain, meaning it reduces neural activity.
• Serotonin controls / dampens aggressive impulses coming from areas of the limbic system, maintaining a stable and calm mood.

Question 8

Serotonin deficiency hypothesis

Answer 8

• Suggests lower than normal levels of serotonin in the OFC result in less self-control over the limbic system’s aggressive impulses.
• Shown by lower levels of 5-HIAA (byproduct of serotonin breakdown) in the spinal fluid of more aggressive people.

Question 9

Testosterone

Answer 9

• A male sex hormone (androgen) that controls the development of male sex characteristics.
• High levels of testosterone in males are thought to be the reason for observed sex differences in aggression.
• High levels of testosterone in the OFC reduces activity —> the OFC is less able to regulate;ate aggressive impulses coming from the limbic system, resulting in less self-control / aggressive responses to stimuli.
• High levels of testosterone increase amygdala activity —> more aggressive impulses.
• High levels of testosterone can reduce the activity of serotonin, limiting its ability to calm aggressive impulses.

Question 10

Gene candidates for aggression are…

Answer 10

Genetic codes (genotypes) that are associated with the display of aggressive behaviour (phenotype).

Question 11

XYY

Answer 11

• Early genetic research suggested the chromosomal disorder XYY syndrome.
• This only affects males, and is when they have an additional Y chromosome.
• Early theories suggested these people were ‘supermales’, taller, generally more aggressive and low in empathy.
• The early research was flawed and XYY males were not over-represented in prison systems as suggested, and the theory is now completely rejected.

Question 12

The MAOA gene

Answer 12

The MAOA gene is responsible for the production of the MAOA (monoamine oxidase A) enzyme, that breaks down the neurotransmitter serotonin.

Question 13

MAOA-L

Answer 13

• Low production of the MAOA enzyme leading to higher levels of serotonin in the brain.
• Nicknames the ‘warrior gene’.
• Found in 1/3 of western men, and over 60% in some communities.
• Aggressive behaviour occurs in these men if they have a history of child abuse (diathesis - gene, stress - abuse).

Question 14

Gene-environment interactions (GXE)

Answer 14

• Genes do not appear to have a crucial role in aggression, but they do not function in isolation.
• It appears the MAOA-L gene activity is only correlated with adult aggression when combined with traumatic life experiences.
• This can also be explained using the diathesis-stress model.

Question 15

Ethology

Answer 15

The scientific study of animal behaviour.
Studying the reasons animals display aggression could be used to understand aspects of human aggression.

Question 16

Evolutionary advantages of animal aggression

Answer 16

• Stay on top of the social hierarchy
• Protection from threats
• Attract mates

Question 17

Animal aggression is highly ritualistic

Answer 17

Members of the same species will respond with the same set of behaviours to threats / stimuli.
This could be growling, showing teeth, puffing up to look threatening, or shows of submission.

Question 18

Innate releasing mechanisms and fixed action patterns

Answer 18

Animals have a built-in neural structure (innate releasing mechanism) which, when exposed to specific stimuli such as facial expressions, will cause the release of an automatic behavioural response (fixed action pattern).

Question 19

Evolutionary theory

Answer 19

If genes give a survival advantage then the individual is more likely to reproduce, passing on these genes to the next generation.

Question 20

Gene mutation and survival of the fittest

Answer 20

• Genes can mutate and some mutations increase aggressive behaviours.
• Increased reproductive success would lead to mutated genes that promote aggression being selected for, so people with these genes are more likely to have a large number of viable children passing on aggressive genes.
• This is survival of the fittest.

Question 21

Anti-cuckoldry

Answer 21

Cuckoldry = being a man with an unfaithful wife.
- Males cannot be sure of paternity, but mothers can be sure of maternity.
- High levels of male violence against partners could be an attempt to ensure faithfulness and certainty that they are investing resources in their own children.

Question 22

Mate retention strategies

Answer 22

Wilson & Daly identified mate retention strategies which involve aggression and physical violence:
- Direct guarding = male vigilance over a partner’s behaviour.
- Negative inducements = issuing threats of dire consequences.

Question 23

Mate retention strategies for physical violence

Answer 23

Wilson et al - women who reported mate retention strategies in their partners were twice as likely to have suffered physical violence at the hands of their partners.
Of these women, 73% required medical attention and 53% said they feared for their lives.

Question 24

Bullying as an adaptive trait

Answer 24

Bullying = a power imbalance where a more powerful individual uses aggression against a weaker person.

Evolutionary explanation:
- Adaptive strategy to increase chances of survival by creating reproductive opportunities.

Researchers have traditionally viewed bullying as maladaptive as a result of a lack of social skills, for example.

Question 25

Bullying adaptive for men

Answer 25

Delivers access to more females and minimal threat from competing males. This is naturally selected because males can reproduce more.

Question 26

Bullying adaptive for females

Answer 26

Method of control in a relationship to secure the male’s fidelity. Campbell - the partner continues to provide resources for future offspring and the behaviour is naturally selected because it increases the woman’s reproductive success.

Question 27

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Answer 27

- Dollard & Millar - aggression is always caused by frustration. - Frustration occurs whenever our goal-directed behaviour is blocked. - Frustration builds up and causes emotional tension. - Aggressive acts relieve frustration through catharsis; the pleasant feeling after releasing a strong emotion. - Aggression can also be displaced onto a weaker, available target. - Aggression is more likely when you are close to achieving your goal (proximity to goal) and if being aggressive is likely to remove the barrier to the goal. - If someone finds that being aggressive helps them achieve their goals (rewarded) and doesn’t lead to negative responses (punishment) then they are more likely to be aggressive in the future.

Question 28

Self-efficacy (social learning theory)

Answer 28

Confidence in being able to perform a behaviour. This may be increased if being aggressive has been successful for them in the past.

Question 29

Internalisation (social learning theory)

Answer 29

According to SLT, learning aggressive behaviours is an internal process; the observer can internalise the observed behaviour without imitating the aggression immediately.

Question 30

De-individuation

Answer 30

How being in a crowd leads to a reduction in self-awareness / personal individuality of people in the crowd.

Question 31

De-individuation - anonymity

Answer 31

- Individuals in a large crowd are less easily identified; they feel anonymous, reducing feelings of personal responsibility. - This lowers inhibitions and feelings of guilt around committing aggressive acts. - Anonymity is increased by factors such as masks, uniforms and darkness.

Question 32

De-individuation - self-awareness

Answer 32

- Reduction in public self-awareness = people are less worried about what others think of them. - Reduction in private self-awareness = we are less able to reflect on our own values and personal thoughts on our behaviour, which makes us less able to stop our own aggressive acts.

Question 33

Importation model

Answer 33

- Dispositional factors - Suggests aggression is imported into the prison environment from the outside world as a result of the prisoners’ personality. - Prisons gather people who often have been convicted of violent crimes, put them in one place, and the prisoners continue to perform aggressive behaviours in the prison.

Question 34

Gang membership in prisons

Answer 34

- Gang membership is common in prisoners. - These prisoners bring prior gang alliances, feuds and street culture with them into the prison environment. - This can result in instrumental violence; premeditated aggression used as a tool, perhaps to settle scores with other gangs or to increase status within the prison.

Question 35

Other personal factors linked to aggression in prisons

Answer 35

- Withdrawal from alcohol or drug addiction. - Level of educational achievement. - Potentially biological factors being imported, such as high levels of testosterone.

Question 36

Criminogenic

Answer 36

The prison itself is the cause of the prisoners’ aggressive behaviour (situational factors).

Question 37

Physical factors of the prison design that lead to aggression

Answer 37

Fear of attack: - Poor layout - Excessive noise - CCTV blind spots Boredom and frustration: - Poor facilities such as gyms, workshops and libraries.

Question 38

Qualities of the prison staff that can lead to aggression (situational factors)

Answer 38

- Large numbers - Poorly trained and inexperienced (less able to diffuse aggressive situations) - Racial and gender mismatch between staff and prisoners

Question 39

The deprivation model

Answer 39

- Depriving prisoners of their freedom, but also their sense of safety, heterosexual relationships and autonomy leads to stress. - The deprivation and physical situation creates frustration and fear. This leads to expressive violence; aggression as an unplanned reactionary response to the conditions.

Question 40

What is ‘the media’?

Answer 40

‘The media’ has a range of forms like newspapers, film and TV. Frequently seeing aggression in the media is thought to lead to increased aggression in the viewer.

Question 41

Social learning theory and media influences

Answer 41

- Social learning suggests identification with an attractive but violent hero (symbolic model) increases the likelihood that aggression will be imitated. - The observer may also learn via vicarious learning that aggression solves problems and gets rewarded.

Question 42

Moral decision making and media influences

Answer 42

- Viewers’ moral decision making process could be socialised by media aggression. - The aggressive hero’s violence is often shown to be justified. - This causes the viewer to think an aggressive response is correct when they feel they have been wronged.

Question 43

The effects of computer games on aggression

Answer 43

- Aspects of computer games may provide a more extreme influence on aggression. - Players don’t just watch but are actively in control of an avatar in situations which aggression is the only way to progress in the game. - Effective use of aggression is positively reinforced by receiving in game rewards / praise (operant conditioning).

Question 44

Computer games reducing aggression

Answer 44

Playing violent video games may reduce the likelihood of real aggression by providing catharsis; a feeling of relief from releasing negative emotions like anger and stress.

Question 45

Desensitisation (media influences)

Answer 45

- When people see the results of extreme aggression they usually experience disgust, discomfort and high levels of anxiety. - Normally people would avoid aggression in order to avoid these unpleasant feelings. - However, repeated exposure to extreme aggression desensitises, reducing the strong reaction, potentially making it easier for people to be extremely aggressive.

Question 46

Disinhibition (media influences)

Answer 46

- People often have a strong desire to not be aggressive; aggressive impulses are inhibited. = - This inhibition comes from socialisation, as we are taught from a young age that aggression is not acceptable / rewarding. - However, repeated exposure to justified aggression in the media, and from committing aggressive acts in computer games, is thought to disinhibited the avoidance of aggression in real life.

Question 47

Cognitive priming (media influences)

Answer 47

- We have mental scripts (schemas) for how to respond to certain situations. - We can learn schemas from TV and computer games. - We may often see the hero acting aggressively when threatened with a gun or a knife; these become cues or priming stimuli. - We are then cognitively primed, meaning that when we a re exposed to these cues in the real world in a similar context then we act aggressively.