Relationships Flashcards
(97 cards)
1
Q
Relationship
A
A continuing and often committed association between 2 or more people.
2
Q
Natural selection - evolutionary explanations
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The argument that genes which are advantageous for survival are naturally selected.
3
Q
Sexual selection - evolutionary explanations
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A form of natural selection which suggests that the characteristics that increase reproductive success are passed on and may become exaggerated through generations.
4
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Anisogamy - evolutionary explanations
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Refers to the sex differences between male and female sex cells (gametes).
5
Q
What is the consequence of anisogamy?
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No shortage of fertile males but there are of fertile females.
Rises 2 types.
6
Q
Inter-sexual selection - evolutionary explanations
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- Between sexes (female ‘choosiness’)
- Strategies used by one sex to attract the other sex
7
Q
Intra-sexual selection - evolutionary explanations
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- Within sexes (male competitiveness)
- Strategies between males to try and be the one that is selected
8
Q
Inter-sexual selection - female strategy (x3) - evolutionary explanations
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- Females are fertile for approximately 25 years and ovulate approximately 1 egg per month
- Females can always be sure of maternity, and so engage in monogamy (mate with only 1 male)
- Females are more selective with their mate selection
9
Q
Inter-sexual selection - impact on partner preference (females) - evolutionary explanations
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Females ‘look for’ males who display genetic fitness, which include strength, status and resources.
10
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Intra-sexual selection - male strategy - evolutionary explanations
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- Males produce around 110 million sperm per ejaculation and can fertilise many females, with very little cost to their reproductive potential
- Our ancestors could not be sure of paternity, and so had to have as much sex with fertile females as possible to maximise the number of potential pregnancies
11
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Intra-sexual selection - impact on partner preference (males) - evolutionary explanations
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Males ‘look for’ females who display signs of fertility, including: good health, youth and childbearing hips, as these females will enhance their chance of reproductive success.
12
Q
Trivers (1972) - inter-sexual selection (x3) - evolutionary explanations
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- Females make greater commitments before, during and after the birth of her offspring and so will be more selective than males.
- It is female preference that will determine which features are passed onto the offspring.
- Once a trait is passed down through several generations it gradually becomes exaggerated (a runaway process).
13
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Fisher (1930) - sexy sons hypothesis (x3) - evolutionary explanations
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- The genes we see today are those with enhanced reproductive success.
- A female who mates with a male with a certain ‘sexy’ trait will have sons with this trait.
- This son will then get selected by other females and the trait will get passed on and the ‘sexy’ trait is perpetuated.
14
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Intra-sexual selection - evolutionists (x3) - evolutionary explanations
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- Evolutionists would argue that males prefer quantity over quality and therefore intra-sexual selection is particularly important for them.
- ‘Winning’ males get their genes (and therefore characteristics) passed onto their offspring and this trait is likely to be perpetuated.
- Intra-sexual selection can also explain the physical differences in the body size and physical appearance between males and females (this is known as physical dimorphism) —> e,g men being larger to fight off competition and females looking more youthful.
15
Q
Self-disclosure
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Gradually revealing personal information that may not be shared with anyone else (e.g thoughts, feelings and experiences).
16
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Types of self-disclosure (x2)
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- Neutral = preferences, music, films etc
- Intense = disappointments, accomplishments and previous sexual relationships (intense is more influential on relationship satisfaction)
17
Q
Norms for when to disclose
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‘Optimal’
- Too personal = indiscriminate
- Too neutral = not facilitating
18
Q
Social penetration theory (x6) - self-disclosure
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- Altman and Taylor (1973)
- Revealing too much information straight away might be inappropriate
- In romantic relationships we give away our deepest thoughts and feelings in a reciprocal exchange
- By revealing information we are displaying trust
- For the relationship to go further, the other person must also reveal sensitive information, thereby penetrating more deeply into each other’s lives
- Onion analogy: breadth - self-disclosure is likely to cover a range of topics as you seek to explore the key facts about your new partner, depth - as the relationship develops, people tend to share more detailed and personal information
19
Q
Self-disclosure - reciprocity
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If one person shares more information than the other is willing to, there may be a breakdown of trust as one person establishes themselves as more invested than the other
20
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Factors to consider in self-disclosure (x4)
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- Appropriateness (being sensitive to social norms)
- Attributions (the reasons we believe someone is self-disclosing)
- Gender differences (more intimate self-disclosure by males may be seen as less appropriate than by females)
- Content of the disclosure (disclosure of highly intimate information may be seen as inappropriate)
21
Q
Filter theory - field of availables and desirables
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Kerckhoff and Davis (1962) argue that when choosing a partner, people start by looking at the options available to them (field of availables), and then apply 3 filters to narrow down to the field of desirables.
22
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Filter theory - Kerckhoff and Davis (1962) study
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They studied couples (mainly in short term relationships of fewer than 18 months), and discovered the criteria (filters) to sift through potential partners to the field of desirables.
23
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First filter of filter theory
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- Sociodemographic characteristics (e.g physical proximity, level of education, social class, religion etc).
- These factors will determine the likelihood of individuals meeting and socialising which will in turn influence the likelihood of relationships being formed.
24
Q
Second filter of filter theory
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- Similarity of attitudes
- People tend to view others as more attractive if they share the same core beliefs and values (e.g career and family).
- Byrne (1997) noted that similarity of attitudes is especially important in earlier stages of relationships, for couples who have been together fewer than 18 months.
- The presence or absence of similarities is discovered through self-disclosure; if partners have very little in common then relationships rarely develop beyond the first few dates.
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Third filter of filter theory
- Complementarity
- Plays a much more important role in long term relationships (more than 18 months).
- It refers to each of the partners having some traits that the other partner lacks and helping each other to fulfil their needs.
26
Which model is Rusbult’s investment model a development of?
Social exchange theory - developed as a result of the limitations of SET.
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Commitment - Rusbult’s investment model
A romantic partner’s intention or desire to continue a relationship, reflecting a belief that the relationship has a viable long-term future.
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3 factors that affect commitment levels - Rusbult’s investment model
- Satisfaction level
- Quality of alternatives
- Investment size
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Factors affecting commitment: satisfaction level - Rusbult’s investment model
A satisfying relationship is when the outcome (rewards - costs) of a relationship surpasses the comparison level.
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Factors affecting commitment: quality of alternatives - Rusbult’s investment model
In the social exchange model, this is coined the comparison level for alternatives (CLalt) and is a judgement about whether partner (or no partner) would bring more rewards and fewer costs.
“Could my needs be better met elsewhere?”
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Factors affecting commitment: investment size - Rusbult’s investment model
- Investment size is the additional factors added to SET.
- Investment size is concerned with the resources associated with a romantic relationship which the partners would lose if the relationship were to end.
- Rusbult felt that weighing up costs and benefits did not always explain why people stayed in a relationship.
- She proposed that investment was the most important factor.
- The model proposes 2 types of investment: intrinsic and extrinsic.
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Intrinsic investments - Rusbult’s investment model
Intrinsic investment compromises of the elements individuals put directly into the relationship, such as effort, money, possessions and self-disclosure.
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Extrinsic investments - Rusbult’s investment model
Extrinsic investment refers to the things that are brought into people’s lives through the relationship, such as children, friends and shared memories.
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How can commitment be strengthened? (x2) - Rusbult’s investment model
- Satisfaction
- Investment
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How can commitment be weakened? - Rusbult’s investment model
Presence of alternatives to the relationship.
36
Shackleford and Larson (1967) (x2) - physical attractiveness
- Found that people with symmetrical faces are more attractive as they have an honest set of genetic fitness (it’s hard to fake facial symmetry).
- Neotenous faces (a baby face) with widely separated large eyes, a small chin and small nose is deemed to be attractive as it triggers a caring instinct.
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Rosenthal and Jacobson study (1968) (x3) - physical attractiveness
- Discovered that teachers generally develop expectations for their students based not merely on the school record but also on their physical appearance
- In the experiment, the teachers were provided with objective information such as the child’s academic potential along with a photo of an attractive or unattractive girl / boy.
- The results indicated that the teachers’ expectations concerning the child’s academic future were significantly associated with the child’s attractiveness.
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Halo effect - physical attractiveness
- Thorndike (1920)
- The halo effect is a type of cognitive bias whereby our perception of someone is positively influenced by our opinions of that person’s other related traits.
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What is the attractiveness stereotype? (x4) - physical attractiveness
- Physical attractiveness may have a powerful role in attraction because of the stereotypes people hold.
- Dion et al (1972) found physically attractive people are consistently rated as kind, strong, sociable and successful.
- This leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy of behaving positively towards attractive people.
- This stereotype is also culturally pervasive. Wheeler and Kim (1997) found that Korean and American students judged physically attractive people to be more trustworthy, concerned for other people, mature and friendly. This stereotype was just as strong in collectivist cultures as it is in individualistic cultures.
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Matching hypothesis - physical attractiveness
- Walster (1966)
- Claims that people are more likely to form a committed relationship with someone equally as attractive or the same level of social desirability.
- The theory suggests that people assess their own value and then make ‘realistic choices’ by selecting the best available potential partners who are also likely to share this same level of attraction.
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Walster et al (1966) - Aim - physical attractiveness
To test the matching hypothesis.
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Walster et al (1966) - Method - physical attractiveness
Field experiment
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Walster et al (1966) - Procedure (x6) - physical attractiveness
- Walster et al advertised a ‘computer dance’ for new students at the University of Minnesota.
- From the large number of students who purchased tickets, 376 males and 376 females were randomly selected to take part in the study.
- When they came to pick up their tickets, 4 students’ accomplices surreptitiously rated each of them for physical attractiveness.
- The participants were then asked to complete a lengthy questionnaire (e.g to assess personality, intelligence etc) and told that the data gathered from these questionnaires would be used to allocate their ideal partner for the evening of the dance.
- In fact, the pairing was done completely randomly.
- During the intermission part of the dance, participants were asked to complete a questionnaire about their dates, with a follow-up questionnaire distributed 6 months after the dance.
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Walster et al (1966) - Findings (x3) - physical attractiveness
- The findings from this study did not support the matching hypothesis.
- Once participants had met their dates, and regardless of their own physical attractiveness, they responded more positively to physically attractive dates and were more likely to subsequently try to arrange dates with them if they were physically attractive.
- Other factors, such as personality or intelligence, did not affect liking the dates or any subsequent attempts to date them.
45
Who proposed the social exchange theory?
Thibault and Kelly (1959)
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What type of theory is the social exchange theory?
- An economic theory, which describes romantic relationships using the terminology of rewards and costs.
- We judge our satisfaction of a relationship in terms of the profit (rewards - costs).
- It assumes individuals make rational decisions about relationships.
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What are examples of costs in a relationship? (x4) - social exchange theory
- Time
- Money
- Conflict
- Their family
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What are examples of rewards in a relationship? (x4) - social exchange theory
- Companionship
- Financial support
- Emotional support
- Sex
49
What is the profit of the relationship? - social exchange theory
Profit = rewards - costs
50
What is the minimax principle? - social exchange theory
The theory claims that partners in relationships strive to minimise losses and maximise gains.
51
What is the comparison level (CL)? (x4) - social exchange theory
- Based on a person’s idea of how much reward they deserve to receive in relationships.
- This is subjective and depends on previous romantic experiences and cultural norms of what is appropriate to expect from relationships.
- The CL is also linked to a person’s self esteem.
- A person with high self esteem will have higher expectations of rewards in relationships, whereas a person with low self esteem will have lower expectations.
52
What is the comparison level for alternatives (CLalt)? (x2) - social exchange theory
- This considers whether a person’s perception of other potential relationships (or being on their own) would be more rewarding than being in their current relationship.
- The theory predicts we will stay in our relationship if we believe it is more rewarding than alternatives.
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What are the stages of relationship development? (x4 - only names) - social exchange theory
- Sampling stage
- Bargaining stage
- Commitment stage
- Institutionalisation stage
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Stages of relationship development - sampling stage - social exchange theory
People explore potential rewards and costs of relationships, not just romantic ones, either by direct experience or by observing others.
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Stages of relationship development - bargaining stage - social exchange theory
- The first stage of any romantic relationship.
- Partners exchange rewards and costs, figure out the most profitable exchanges and negotiate the dynamics of the relationship.
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Stages of romantic development - commitment stage - social exchange theory
When rewards become more stable, and partners become familiar with sources of rewards and costs, and each other’s expectations, so rewards increase and costs lessen.
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Stages of romantic development - institutionalisation stage - social exchange theory
The partners are now settled down in their relationship because the norms of the relationship (rewards and costs) are firmly established.
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Who proposed the equity theory?
Walster (1978)
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What was equity theory developed in response to?
Social exchange theory
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What type of theory is equity theory?
An economic theory that suggests that partners are concerned about fairness of relationships.
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What did Walster (1978) argue about fairness in a relationship? - equity theory
Fairness is achieved when people feel they get the same level of profit as their partner does.
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Dissatisfaction in relationships may arise due to which factors? - equity theory
If one partner perceives a relationship as unfair, they are going to be dissatisfied. This could be due to under benefitting or over benefitting.
- Get more benefits than put in = guilt and shame.
- Put a lot in and get very little back - angry and resentful.
The longer the feeling of unfairness, the more likely a couple is to break up.
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Equity is about fairness of ratios (x3) - equity theory
- It is not about the number of rewards and costs but rather about the balance between them.
- If a person puts a lot of effort into a relationship and receives a lot it will seem fair to them.
- Satisfying relationships are marked by negotiations to ensure equity and that rewards are distributed fairly.
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Perception of equity changes over time - equity theory
What seemed unfair in the beginning may become a norm as relationships progress, or the partner who gives more may start working even harder on the relationship until the balance is restored.
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Correlation between inequity and dissatisfaction - equity theory
- The greater the perceived inequity, the greater the dissatisfaction.
- Equity theory predicts a strong correlation between the two.
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Ways to restore equity (x2) - equity theory
- Distribution: negotiation of the costs and rewards to attempt to achieve fairness.
- Realignment: revision of perceptions of costs and rewards (e.g infidelity may now be accepted as the norm).
67
What does Duck’s Phase Model (2007) suggest?
That the breakdown of a relationship is not a single event, but rather a system of stages or phases which a couple progress through, which incorporate the end of the relationship.
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1. Intrapsychic stage - Duck’s phase model
- This is when a person admits to him/herself that they are dissatisfied with their relationship.
- They spend time thinking about the pros and cons of the relationship, and possible alternatives.
- This stage focuses on a person’s internal thought process that occurs before confronting the partner.
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1. Intrapsychic stage - threshold - Duck’s phase model
“I can’t stand this anymore.”
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2. Dyadic stage - Duck’s phase model
- This occurs when a person confronts their partner and voices their dissatisfaction.
- This can take place over days or weeks.
- Discussions will often focus on the equity of the relationship.
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2. Dyadic stage - threshold - Duck’s phase model
“I would be justified in withdrawing.”
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3. Social stage - Duck’s phase model
- Once the conflict reaches this stage, it is more difficult for a couple to mend their relationship.
- Friends and family will take sides, intervene in the couple’s relationship and offer advice, which makes reconciliation much more problematic.
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3. Social stage - threshold - Duck’s phase model
“I mean it.” - The social stage usually leads to the dissolution of the relationship.
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4. Grave dressing stage - Duck’s phase model
- Having left their partner, both sides construct their version of why the relationship broke down.
- They will minimise their own faults and maximise their partner’s faults, at the same time trying to retain their social value and not lowering their chances to attract a new partner.
- This process is called ‘grave-dressing’, signifying the closure of the previous relationship and readiness to start a new one.
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4. Grave dressing stage - threshold - Duck’s phase model
“It’s now inevitable.”
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What are the 4 stages of Duck’s phase model (2007)?
1. The intrapsychic stage
2. The dyadic stage
3. The social stage
4. The grave dressing stage
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How did Duck & Rollie update the original model? - Duck’s phase model
- They proposed an addition to the model: the resurrection stage.
- They suggested that at this stage people move beyond the pain and distress associated with ending the relationship, and experience personal growth.
78
What does virtual communication cause? (x7)
- Anonymity
- They don’t know about your friends
- More time to think about what to say
- Less embarassment
- Sexting
- More editing
- Worry of blackmailing / trolling / catfishing
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What are the 2 opposing theories on virtual relationships?
- Reduced cues theory (Sproull & Kielser, 1986) - self-disclosure is lower.
- The hyperpersonal model (Walter, 1996) - self-disclosure is higher.
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Reduced cues theory (Sproull & Kessler, 1986) - is self-disclosure higher or lower?
Argues that self-disclosure is lower in computer mediated communication (CMC) as cues (e.g appearance or cues to our emotional state) are lacking and therefore communication is less effective than in face to face (FtF) relationships.
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Reduced cues theory (Sproull & Kessler, 1986) - what can lower self-disclosure lead to?
The theory argues that it can lead to a person being deindividuated, which is losing their identity and acting in a way they would not normally.
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Reduced cues theory (Sproull & Kessler, 1986) - what does deindividuation lead to?
Disinhibition, which can involve aggression and blunt communication and less self-disclosure.
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Hyperpersonal model (Walter, 1996) - is self-disclosure higher or lower?
Suggests that self-disclosure is higher in computer mediated communication (CMC) as relationships are more personal than face to face (FtF).
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Hyperpersonal model (Walter, 1996) - what are CMC relationships like, and why?
- CMC relationships can develop very quickly as self-disclosure happens earlier, and so they become more intense and intimate.
- They can also end more quickly and there is not the same level of trust between partners.
85
What are the key features of hyperpersonal self-disclosure? - virtual relationships (x3)
- The sender of the message has greater control on what to disclose (known as selective self-penetration), so they can present themselves in an idealised way.
- Self-disclosures can be intensely truthful (hyper-honest) and / or intensely false (hyper-dishonest).
- The receiver gains a positive impression of the sender, and their feedback may reinforce the sender’s self-presentation (“wow, you sound like a really positive person”).
86
Anonymity in self-disclosure - virtual relationships
- Anonymity is a factor that promotes online self-disclosure.
- When the other person does not know another’s identity, they feel less accountable for their behaviour, so they may disclose more (Bargh et al, 2002).
- This is like the strangers on a train effect identified by Rubin (1975).
87
What are gates in relationships? - virtual relationships (x3)
- McKenna & Bargh (1999) state that a gate is any obstacle to forming a relationship. Virtual relationships are not subject to the usual limiting factors that affect the forming of face to face relationships (e.g attractiveness, social skills).
- McKenna & Bargh argue that the absence of gating is a huge benefit of CMC in that the relationship may ‘get off the ground’ in ways FtF situations may not.
- Therefore there is a greater chance to build relationships toward intimate self-disclosure as you focus on self-disclosure rather than superficial and distracting features.
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Parasocial relationship
‘Para’ means resembling.
Parasocial relationships are missing a key element normally present; they are not reciprocated.
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What is the Celebrity Attitude Scale? - parasocial relationships
Matby et al (2006) used the Celebrity Attitude Scale which was developed by McCutcheon (2002) to identify 3 levels within parasocial relationships.
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What are the 3 levels of parasocial relationships?
- Entertainment-social
- Intense-personal
- Boderline pathological
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What is the entertainment-social level of parasocial relationships?
- Least intensive level of celebrity worship.
- Celebrities viewing as sources of entertainment and fuel for social interaction (e.g people who enjoy a TV series might also read about them online).
- Giles (2002) found that parasocial relationships were a fruitful source of gossip in offices.
92
What is the intense-personal level of parasocial relationships?
- This is an intermediate level which reflects a greater personal involvement in a parasocial relationship within society.
- For example, people may consider Kim Kardashian as a soul mate.
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What is the boderline pathological level of parasocial relationships?
- This is the strongest level of celebrity worship, featuring uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours.
- They may spend a large sum of money on a celebrity-related object.
- May be willing to perform an illegal act.
94
How does the absorption addiction model explain parasocial relationships?
McCutheon (2002) - This theory argues that parasocial relationships are an escape from life deficiencies like:
- Poor sense of identity
- Poor psychological adjustment
- Lack of fulfilment in life
The ‘relationships’ allow an escape from reality to seek fulfilment.
95
What are the 2 main components of the absorption addiction model? - parasocial relationships
Absorption - An individual seeks fulfilment in a celebrity by becoming preoccupied with them. They want to absorb some of what they lack (e.g beauty) and start to identify with them.
Addiction - The individual needs to increase their involvement (dose) to gain satisfaction. This could lead to extreme behaviours like delusional thinking (e.g stalking).
96
How does the attachment theory explain parasocial relationships? - Bowlby
Bowlby suggests that early relationship difficulties can lead to emotional troubles in later life, which can be seen in parasocial relationships.
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How does the attachment theory explain parasocial relationships? - Ainsworth (1979)
Ainsworth’s insecure attachments can also explain parasocial relationships:
- Insecure-resistants want their needs met where there is no threat of rejection and therefore are most likely to form parasocial relationships.
- Insecure-avoidants avoid the pain of any rejection in any type of relationship and so are unlikely to form any relationships, including parasocial relationships.
