All The Different Theories of Criminality

Question 1

Name: XXY Theory
Type: Genetic Theory

Answer 1

Overview: suggests that males with an extra Y chromosome (XYY instead of the typical XY) may be more predisposed to criminal behaviour. This condition is sometimes called “supermale syndrome.” Studies have linked it to increased aggression, impulsivity, and a higher likelihood of engaging in violent crimes.

Evaluation:
Strengths:
~Some studies (e.g., Jacobs et al., 1965) found a higher prevalence of XYY individuals in prison populations.

~The theory supports the idea that biological factors can influence criminal behaviour.

Limitations:
~Many XYY individuals do not engage in crime, suggesting other factors (e.g., environment) play a role.

~The sample sizes in early studies were small and not necessarily representative of the general population.

~The theory does not explain female criminality.

Question 2

Name: Twin Studies
Type: Physiological Theory

Answer 2

Overview: Twin studies compare the criminal behaviours of identical twins (monozygotic) and fraternal twins (dizygotic). If criminal behaviour is largely genetic, identical twins (who share 100% of their genes) should have higher concordance rates (both being criminals) compared to fraternal twins (who share 50% of their genes).
Evaluation:
Strengths:
~Studies (e.g., Christiansen, 1977) found higher concordance rates for criminality in identical twins compared to fraternal twins.

~Supports the argument that genetics play a role in criminal behaviour.

Limitations:
~Identical twins often share the same environment, making it difficult to separate genetic influences from environmental ones.
~Studies sometimes lack reliability due to small sample sizes.

Question 3

Name: Adoption studies
Type: Physiological Theory

Answer 3

Overview:
~Looks at individuals who were adopted and compares their criminal behaviour to that of their biological and adoptive parents.
~If an adopted child’s criminal behaviour is more similar to their biological parents, this suggests a genetic influence.

Evaluation:
Strengths:
~Studies (e.g., Mednick et al., 1984) found that adoptees were more likely to have criminal records if their biological parents had criminal records, even when raised in non-criminal adoptive families.

~Helps separate genetic influences from environmental factors.

Limitations:
~The adoptive environment still plays a role, as children may be influenced by their surroundings.

~Some studies show mixed results, indicating that environmental and social factors are also crucial.

Question 4

Name: Lombroso
Type: Physiological Theory

Answer 4

Overview:
The theory of the “born criminal,” suggests that criminals have distinct physical features such as a prominent jaw, high cheekbones, large ears, and asymmetrical facial features. He believed these were signs of atavism—primitive traits that made individuals more prone to crime.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
~One of the first to apply scientific methods to criminology.(used objective measurements to gather evidence)

~Encouraged further research into biological causes of crime.

~Argued offenders were not freely choosing to commit crime

Limitations:
~Lacks reliability; no strong scientific evidence supports it.

~Ignores social and environmental influences on crime.
Only examined convicted criminals
~Research since failed to show the link between facial features and criminality
~Did not have a control group of non-criminals

Question 5

Name: Brain Abnormality
Type: Physiological Theory

Answer 5

Overview:
~Abnormalities in the brain, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, can be linked to impulsivity and violent behaviour.

~Research on brain injuries, tumors, and conditions like epilepsy has shown connections to criminal behaviour.

Evaluation:
Strengths:
~MRI and PET scans provide scientific evidence of differences in criminals’ brains.

~Cases like Phineas Gage and studies on serial killers show a link between brain damage and personality changes.

Limitations:
~Not all people with brain abnormalities commit crimes.

~Environmental and social factors still play a significant role.

Question 6

Name: Neurochemical
Type: Physiological Theory

Answer 6

Overview: Criminal behaviour may be influenced by neurochemicals such as serotonin, dopamine, and testosterone. Low serotonin levels are linked to aggression, while high testosterone is associated with increased violence. Diet, drugs, and lifestyle choices can also influence neurochemistry.

Evaluation:
Strengths:
~Supported by research on the effects of drugs, diet, and hormones on aggression.

~Can lead to treatments to reduce aggression (e.g., serotonin-enhancing drugs).

Limitations:
~Doesn’t account for social and environmental influences.

~Ethical concerns over using neurochemicals to control behaviour.

Question 7

Name: Bandura – Social learning Theory

Type: Learning Theory

Answer 7

Overview: Bandura’s theory suggests that criminal behaviour is learned through observation and imitation. His Bobo doll experiment showed that children who observed aggressive behaviour were more likely to act aggressively themselves.

Evaluation:
Strengths:
~Explains how upbringing and media influence behaviour.

~Supported by real-world examples, such as gang culture and violent video game effects.

Limitations:
~Doesn’t explain why some people exposed to crime do not become criminals.
~It ignores biological factors.

Question 8

Name: Freud
Type: Psychodynamic Theory

Answer 8

Overview: Suggests that crime results from an imbalance in the id, ego, and superego. If the superego is too weak or too strong, individuals may act impulsively or feel excessive guilt, leading to criminal behaviour.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
~ Explains the role of childhood experiences in shaping behaviour.

~Highlights unconscious motives behind crime.

Limitations:
~Lacks scientific evidence; based on subjective interpretation.

~Difficult to test or measure unconscious drives.

Question 9

Name: Bowlby (maternal deprivation theory)
Type: Psychodynamic Theory

Answer 9

Overview: Suggests that children who experience separation from their primary caregiver during early years may develop emotional detachment, leading to criminal behaviour.

Evaluation:
Strengths:
~Supported by studies showing links between childhood neglect and later criminality.
~Explains how early experiences shape future behaviour.

Limitations:
~Not all children with attachment issues become criminals.
~Ignores other influences, such as peer pressure and socioeconomic factors.

Question 10

Name: Eysenck
Type: Psychological (Personality) Theories

Answer 10

Overview: suggests that individuals with high extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism are more prone to criminal behaviour. He believed personality traits were biologically inherited.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
~Some studies link personality traits to criminal behaviour.

~Provides a measurable approach to understanding crime.

Limitations:
~Personality is influenced by the environment, not just biology.

~Doesn’t explain why some with these traits do not commit crimes.

Question 11

Name: Marxism (Structural theory)

Type: Sociological Theories

Answer 11

Overview: Argues that crime is a result of capitalist society, where the rich exploit the poor. Laws are made to benefit the ruling class, and working-class crime is often a reaction to inequality.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
~Explains white-collar crime and corruption among the wealthy.

~Highlights how laws benefit the powerful

Limitations:
~Ignores crimes committed by the rich and wealthy.

~Doesn’t explain non-financial crimes like violent offenses.

Question 12

Name: Functionalism (Structural theory)
Type: Sociological Theories

Answer 12

Overview:
Functionalism, as proposed by Durkheim, views crime as a natural and necessary part of society. It argues that crime serves key functions:
Boundary Maintenance – Crime reinforces social norms by showing what is unacceptable through punishment.

Social Change – Deviance can lead to positive change (e.g., civil rights movements).

Safety Valve – Some minor crimes relieve social pressure (e.g., protests).

Warning Device – High crime levels indicate problems in society that need addressing.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
~Recognizes crime as having a function in society rather than just being negative.

~Explains why crime is more common among those who lack legitimate opportunities.

~Highlights how law and norms evolve in response to deviance.
Limitations:
~Doesn’t explain why some individuals turn to crime while others in the same situation do not.
~Overlooks the role of power and inequality (e.g., ignores white-collar crime).
~Assumes crime is beneficial, ignoring the harm it causes to victims.

Question 13

Name: Interactionism and Labelling Theory
Type: Sociological Theories

Answer 13

Overview: Argues that crime and deviance are socially constructed. It focuses on how individuals become “criminals” due to the labels society places on them. Key ideas include:
Deviance is Relative – No act is inherently criminal; it only becomes deviant when society labels it as such.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy – If someone is labelled as a criminal, they may internalize this identity and continue offending.

Master Status – A criminal label can override all other aspects of a person’s identity, leading to exclusion from society.

Moral Panics – Media and authorities amplify deviance through overreaction, creating more crime (e.g., youth gangs).

Evaluation:
Strengths:
~Explains why certain groups (e.g., ethnic minorities, working-class individuals) are more likely to be criminalized.

~Highlights the role of law enforcement, media, and social reaction in shaping crime.

~Recognizes the impact of stigma and secondary deviance (continued criminality due to labelling).

Limitations:
~Fails to explain why people commit deviant acts before being labelled.
~Ignores structural factors (poverty, inequality) that contribute to crime.
~Assumes individuals passively accept labels rather than resisting them.

Question 14

Name: Right Realism
Type: Sociological Theories

Answer 14

Overview: A conservative approach to crime that sees criminal behaviour as a result of individual choice, biological factors, and a lack of social control.
Key theorists include James Q. Wilson, Richard Herrnstein, and Charles Murray. Key ideas include:
Biological Differences – Some individuals are naturally more predisposed to crime due to personality traits such as aggression or low impulse control (Wilson & Herrnstein).

Inadequate Socialisation – Crime is linked to poor family structures, single-parent households, and dependency on welfare, which fail to instill discipline (Murray’s Underclass Theory).

Rational Choice Theory – Criminals weigh the costs and benefits of crime; if the risks are low and rewards high, they will offend (Clarke).

Broken Windows Theory – Visible signs of disorder (e.g., vandalism) encourage more crime, so strict policing of minor crimes is essential (Wilson & Kelling).

Evaluation:
Strengths:
~Has influenced tough crime policies, such as zero-tolerance policing and stricter punishments.

~Recognizes that crime is a real and growing problem that affects victims.

~Highlights the role of deterrence in reducing crime.

Limitations:
~Overemphasizes individual responsibility and ignores structural factors (e.g., poverty, inequality).
~Fails to explain white-collar and corporate crime.

~Zero-tolerance policies can lead to discrimination and over-policing of certain communities.

Question 15

Name: Left realism
Type: Sociological Theories

Answer 15

Overview:
emerged as a response to both right realism and traditional Marxist views on crime. It was developed by Jock Young, John Lea, and Roger Matthews, focusing on the real impact of crime on working-class communities. Key ideas include:
Relative Deprivation – Crime occurs when people feel deprived compared to others. Even if their living conditions improve, they may still feel disadvantaged due to social inequality.

~Subcultures – Some groups, particularly in deprived areas, develop criminal subcultures as a response to blocked opportunities (similar to Merton’s strain theory).

~Marginalisation – Those who feel excluded from society, such as unemployed youth, are more likely to turn to crime as they lack legitimate ways to express grievances.

~The Square of Crime – Crime should be understood by examining four key factors: the offender, the victim, the state (police and justice system), and the public.

~Solutions to Crime – Left realists advocate for community-based policing, tackling social inequalities, and improving opportunities for the working class to prevent crime.

Evaluation:
Strengths:
~Recognizes the real impact of crime on victims, especially those in disadvantaged communities.

~Provides practical solutions by addressing social inequalities rather than just punishing offenders.

~Acknowledges multiple causes of crime, including social, economic, and political factors.

Limitations:
~Focuses too much on street crime while ignoring white-collar and corporate crime.

~Doesn’t fully explain why some people in deprived conditions don’t turn to crime.

~Community policing and tackling inequality require significant government funding, which may not always be available.

Question 16

What do Biological theories focus on?

Answer 16

The idea that physical characteristics make some people more likely to commit crime than others. Such criminal tendencies can be genetic and therefore inherited. Biological theories are broken down into two strands.

Question 17

What do Sociological theories focus on?

Answer 17

The belief that society influences a person to become a criminal.

Question 18

What are the 3 individualistic theories?

Answer 18

~Learning theories
~Psychological (Personality) Theories
~Psychodynamic theories

Question 19

Name: Sutherland – Differential Association Theory
Type: Learning Theory

Answer 19

Overview:
Individuals learn criminal behaviour from their social environment. If people are surrounded by crime, they are more likely to adopt criminal values and techniques.

Evaluation:
Strengths:
~Explains why crime runs in families and communities.
~Recognises the influence of peers and socialization.

Limitations:
~Doesn’t explain spontaneous or individual crimes.
~Ignores biological and psychological factors.

Question 20

Name: Sheldon (somatotypes)
Type: Physiological Theory

Answer 20

Overview:
Links body types to personality and criminality. He identified three body types:

~Endomorph(fat and soft) – relaxed and sociable.

~Ectomorph (thin and fragile) – introverted and sensitive. Least likely to engage in criminal behaviour.

~Mesomorph (muscular and hard, high pain tolerance, uncaring) – aggressive and most likely to engage in criminal behaviour.

~Mesomorph physique and assertiveness are important assets in crime

Evaluation:
Strengths:
~Some studies found correlations between mesomorphic body types and criminal behaviour.
~Other studies have replicated Sheldon’s findings. Gluek found 60% were mesomorphs
~Most serious delinquency in Sheldon’s sample were the ones more extremely mesomorphic shapes

Limitations:
~Correlation does not equal causation—mesomorphs may be treated differently by society, leading to criminal behaviour.

~Overly simplistic and ignores psychological and social factors.
Doesn’t take into account for those endomorphs and ectomorphs who commit crime

~Did not consider social class

Question 21

What are Learning theories?

Answer 21

They are based on the assumption that offending is a set of behaviours that are learned in the same way as other behaviours, often these behaviours are learned from family members or peer groups.

Question 22

Which theories are considered to be different kinds of Biological theories?

Answer 22

~Genetic theories
~Physiological theories

Question 23

Can you name at least 3 Sociological theories of criminality?

Answer 23

~Functionalism (Merton)
~ Functionalism (Durkhiem)
~Surveilence theories
~Marxists view of crime
~Right realism
~Left realism
~Interactionism and labelling theory
~Subcultural theories

Question 24

Can you name at least 3 Individualistic theories of criminality?

Answer 24

~Freud’s Psychoanalysis theory
~Learning theories - differential association
~Cognitive theories - criminal personality theory
~Eysenck’s personality theory
~Learning theories-social learning theory
~Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory
~Learning theories- Operant conditioning
~Cognitive theories - moral development theory

Question 25

Can you name at least 3 Biological theories of criminality?

Answer 25

~Lombroso’s Theory ~Sheldon’s Theory ~Biochemical explanations ~Genetic theories - XYY syndrome ~Genetic theories - adoption studies ~Genetic theories - twin studies ~Brain injuries and disorders

Question 26

Evaluate the effectiveness of the Lombroso: Born Criminals theory.

Answer 26

Strengths: ~First person to study crime scientifically ~Shows importance of clinical and historical records of criminals ~Helps to focus on how prevention (not punishment) can reduce crime Weaknesses: ~No further evidence to link facial features and criminality ~Did not compare with non-criminal control group ~Racist: equates criminals with savage, non-Western societies

Question 27

Evaluate the effectiveness of the Sheldon: Somatotypes Theory.

Answer 27

Strengths: ~Other studies replicate findings ~Most serious delinquents had mesomorphic body types Weaknesses: ~Criminality likely to be a mix of biology and environment ~Mesomorphic build may be a result of criminality ~Social class could be the true cause ~Mesomorphs may be more likely to be labelled

Question 27

Evaluate the effectiveness of the Brain Injuries and Disorders theory.

Answer 27

Strengths: ~Brain injuries can clearly alter personality and behavior. ~Correlation found between abnormal EEG readings and psychopathy. ~Higher rates of brain injury in prisoners. Weaknesses: ~Crimes may stem from personality traits, not brain injury. ~EEG abnormalities not found in all criminals. ~Brain injury may only affect likelihood of minor offenses like fights.

Question 27

Evaluate the effectiveness of the Biochemical Explanations theory.

Answer 27

Strengths: ~Recognized by courts as partial defense (e.g. PMT). ~Some support for links with hormones, alcohol, drugs. Weaknesses: ~Need environmental trigger too, not just biochemistry. ~Testosterone may not directly cause aggression. ~Isolation might explain behavior more than hormones.

Question 27

Evaluate the effectiveness of Freud’s Psychoanalysis theory.

Answer 27

Strengths: ~Emphasizes childhood and family in crime development. ~Some influence on practices like therapy and rehabilitation. ~Supports unconscious motives and internal conflict. Weaknesses: ~Unscientific and subjective – no way to falsify. ~Doesn’t explain why only some with bad upbringings offend. ~Relies on outdated gender-biased concepts (e.g. Oedipus complex).

Question 28

Evaluate the effectiveness of Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation Theory.

Answer 28

Strengths: ~Supported by the 44 thieves study. ~Shows importance of early attachment. Weaknesses: ~Based on retrospective recall, prone to bias. ~Only 39% of thieves had maternal deprivation vs 5% control group. ~Doesn’t explain why 61% weren’t delinquent. ~Some affectionless psychopathy weren’t maternally deprived

Question 28

Evaluate the effectiveness of Eysenck’s Personality Theory.

Answer 28

Strengths: ~Links personality traits to criminal tendencies. ~Evidence that offenders score high on E, N and P. Weaknesses: ~Prisoners are often not extroverted. ~E and N are separate traits, not always correlated. ~Correlation ≠ causation. ~Based on self-report questionnaires.

Question 29

Evaluate the effectiveness of the Subcultural Theories of criminality.

Answer 29

Strengths: ~Shows how subcultures form as solutions to status frustration. ~Explains different types of neighborhood influences on crime. Weaknesses: ~Assumes all working-class youth share values/goals. ~Ignores other causes of crime like white-collar crime. ~Subcultures may overlap, not as clear-cut as Cloward & Ohlin suggest.

Question 30

Evaluate the effectiveness of the Interactionism and Labelling Theory.

Answer 30

Strengths: ~Shows how deviance is a social construct. ~Explains how labeling affects self-identity and behavior. ~Shows why working-class crimes may be over-policed. Weaknesses: ~Assumes people accept their label. ~Doesn’t explain primary deviance (why people offend in the first place). ~Too focused on powerless groups.

Question 30

Evaluate the effectiveness of the Marxist Theory of crime and law.

Answer 30

Strengths: ~Highlights inequality and its impact on crime. ~Shows selective enforcement of the law. Weaknesses: ~Romanticizes working-class crime. ~Ignores laws that protect the poor. ~Doesn’t address gender/ethnicity factors.

Question 31

Evaluate the effectiveness of Right Realism.

Answer 31

Strengths: ~RCT is supported by real-world scenarios. ~Explains why people weigh up risks before committing crimes. Weaknesses: ~Ignores broader structural causes. ~Fails to explain white-collar crime. ~Some solutions are extreme or impractical.

Question 31

Evaluate the effectiveness of Left Realism.

Answer 31

Strengths: ~Recognizes social inequalities as crime causes. ~Highlights effects of crime on deprived groups. Weaknesses: ~Neglects crimes of the powerful. ~Overemphasizes the role of the police.

Question 32

Evaluate the effectiveness of Surveillance Theories.

Answer 32

Strengths: ~Shows how surveillance creates self-discipline. ~Explains changes in modern crime control. Weaknesses: ~May exaggerate surveillance effects. ~Doesn’t change behavior of all offenders.