Anatomy Flashcards

Question

What is the innervation of the deltoid?

Answer 1

Axillary nerve

Answer 2

The anterior fibres flex the arm at the shoulder, the posterior fibres extend the arm at the shoulder. The middle fibres are the major abductor of the arm – it takes over from the supraspinatus, which abducts the first 15 degrees.

Answer 3

Originates from the posterior surface of the inferior angle of the scapula. It attaches to the intertubecular groove of the humerus.

Answer 4

Lower subscapular nerve

Answer 5

Adducts at the shoulder and medially rotates the arm

Answer 6

The teres minor, the supraspinous, the infraspinous and the subscapularis

Answer 7

Originates from the posterior surface of the scapula, adjacent to its lateral border. It attaches to the greater tubercle of the humerus.

Answer 8

Axillary nerve

Answer 9

Laterally rotates the arm

Answer 10

Originates from the supraspinous fossa of the scapula, attaches to the greater tuberosity of the humerus

Answer 11

Suprascapular nerve

Answer 12

Abducts the arm 0-15^o, and assists deltoid for 15-90^o

Answer 13

Originates from the infraspinous fossa of the scapula, attaches to the greater tubercle of the humerus

Answer 14

Suprascapular nerve

Answer 15

Laterally rotates the arm

Answer 16

Originates from the subscapular fossa, on the costal surface of the scapula. It attaches to the lesser tubercle of the humerus

Answer 17

Upper and lower subscapular nerves

Answer 18

Medially rotates the arm

Answer 19

The deltoid

Answer 20

Teres major

Answer 21

Teres minor

Answer 22

Supraspinatous

Answer 23

Infraspinatous

Answer 24

Subscapularis

Answer 25

The acromion of the scapula

Answer 26

Subscapular fossa

Answer 27

The coracoid process of the scapula

Answer 28

The short head of the biceps brachii and the pectoralis minor insert here, while the corocobrachialis muscle originates from this projection.

Answer 29

It is the glenoid fossa. A shallow cavity, which articulates with the humerus to form the glenohumeral joint. The superior part of the lateral border is very important clinically, as it articulates with the humerus to make up the shoulder joint, or glenohumeral joint.

Answer 30

Supraglenoid tubercle – A roughening immediately superior to the glenoid fossa, this is the place of attachment of the long head of the biceps brachii.

Answer 31

It is the spine of the scapula

Answer 32

the biceps brachii, brachialis and coracobrachialis (BBC) and the triceps muscle. The BBC muscles are all in the front of the arm. The triceps muscle is in the posterior.

Answer 33

The long head originates from the supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula; the short head originates from the coracoid process of the scapula.

Answer 34

The tendon of the long head passes through the shoulder joint and intertubecular groove of the humerus to meet the short head. At the level of the humeral shaft, the two heads combine to form the muscle belly. Distally, the biceps attaches to the radial tuberosity

Answer 35

The main action of the biceps brachii is supination of the forearm. It also flexes the arm at the elbow and at the shoulder.

Answer 36

Innervation is from the musculocutaneous nerve (C5,C6, mainly C6). A tap on the biceps tendon tests spinal cord segment C6.

Answer 37

It originates from the coracoid process of the scapula. The muscle passes through the axilla, and attaches the medial side of the humeral shaft, at the level of the deltoid tubercle.

Answer 38

The coracobrachialis is a flexor of the arm at the shoulder

Answer 39

It is innervated by the musculocutaneous nerve (C5,C6,C7, mainly C6).

Answer 40

It originates from the medial and lateral surfaces of the humeral shaft, and inserts into the tuberosity of ulna just distal to the elbow joint.

Answer 41

The brachialis muscle is the main flexor at the elbow.

Answer 42

Nervous supply is by the musculocutaneous nerve (C5,C6, mainly C6), although a small lateral portion is innervated by the radial nerve.

Answer 43

The medial head of the triceps lies deeper than the other two, which cover it. The medial head is therefore not visible unless the other two heads are dissected away.

Answer 44

Long head – Originates from the infraglenoid tubercle; Lateral head – Originates from the humerus, superior to the radial grove; Medial head – Originates from the humerus, inferior to the radial groove. The three heads combine to make one muscle, they converge to a tendon, which then attach to the olecranon of the ulna.

Answer 45

The triceps brachii performs extension of the arm at the elbow.

Answer 46

It is innervated by the radial nerve (C6, C7, C8, mainly C7). A tap on the triceps tendon tests spinal segment C7.

Answer 47

The triceps branchii

Answer 48

The brachialis

Answer 49

Coracobrachialis

Answer 50

The biceps branchii

Answer 51

Attaches the upper limb to the trunk; Protects the underlying neurovascular structures supplying the upper limb; Transmits force from the upper limb to the axial skeleton.

Answer 52

The sternal end, the shaft and the acromonial end

Answer 53

Conoid tubercle – attachment point of the conoid ligament, the medial part of the coracoclavicular ligament. It is at the sternal end

Answer 54

The coracoclavicular ligament is a very strong structure, effectively suspending the weight of the upper limb from the clavicle.

Answer 55

Between the scapula and the humerus

Answer 56

A round nodule, and signifies an attachment site of a muscle or ligament.

Answer 57

The head, anatomical neck, surgical neck, greater and lesser tubercles and intertubercular sulcus

Answer 58

The head of the humerus projects medially and superiorly to articulate with the glenoid cavity of the scapula. The head is connected to the tubercles by the anatomical neck, which is short in width and nondescript.

Answer 59

The greater tubercle is located laterally on the humerus. It has a anterior and posterior face. The greater tubercle serves as attachment site for 3 of the rotator cuff muscles(supraspinatus, infraspinatus and teres minor).

Answer 60

The lesser tubercle is much smaller, and more medially located on the bone. It only has an anterior face. It is a place of attachment for the last rotator cuff muscle – subscapularis.

Answer 61

The groove between the greater and lesser tubercle of the humerus

Answer 62

The tendon of the long head of biceps brachii runs through this groove. The edges of the intertubecular sulcus are known as lips. Tendons of the pectoralis major, teres major and latissimus dorsi attach to the lips of the intertubecular sulcus.

Answer 63

On the lateral side of the humeral shaft is a roughened surface where the deltoid muscle attaches. This is known is as the deltoid tuberosity.

Answer 64

The radial groove is shallow depression that runs diagonally down the posterior surface of the humerus, parallel to the deltoid tuberosity. The radial nerve and profunda brachii artery lie in this groove.

Answer 65

Corocobrachialis, deltoid, brachialis, brachioradialis

Answer 66

Medial and lateral heads of the triceps

Answer 67

The medial and lateral supraepicondylar ridges. The lateral supraepidcondylar ridge is more roughened, as it is the site of attachment for many of the extensor muscles in the posterior forearm.

Answer 68

The brachial plexus is a network of nerve fibres that supplies the skin and musculature of the upper limb. It begins in the root of the neck, passes through the axilla, and enters the upper arm.

Answer 69

The plexus is formed by the anterior rami (divisions) of the cervical spinal nerves C5, C6, C7 and C8, and the first thoracic spinal nerve, T1.

Answer 70

The roots, trunks, divisions, cords and branches (a good mnemonic for this is Read That Damn Cadaver Book). There are no functional differences between these divisions – they are simply used to aid explanation of the brachial plexus.

Answer 71

The roots of the brachial plexus are formed by the anterior divisions of spinal nerves C5-T1 (the posterior divisions go on to innervate the skin and musculature of the trunk). After their formation, these nerves pass between the anterior and medial scalene muscles to enter the base of the neck.

Answer 72

At the base of the neck, the roots of the brachial plexus converge, forming three trunks. The superior, middle and inferior trunks. The trunks begin to move laterally, crossing the posterior triangle of the neck.

Answer 73

Superior trunk: A combination of C5 and C6 roots. Middle trunk: A continuation of C7. Inferior trunk: A combination of C8 and T1 roots.

Answer 74

Within the posterior triangle of the neck, each trunk divides into two branches. One division travels anteriorly (toward the front of the body) and the other posteriorly (towards the back of the body). Thus, they are known as the anterior and posterior divisions. These divisions leave the posterior triangle and pass into the axilla region. They recombine in the next part of the brachial plexus.

Answer 75

Once the anterior and posterior divisions have entered the axilla, they combine together to form three nerves. These nerves are named by their position relative to the axillary artery. Either the posterior, lateral or medial cords

Answer 76

The anterior division of the superior trunk and the anterior division of the middle trunk

Answer 77

The posterior division of the superior trunk; The posterior division of the middle trunk; The posterior division of the inferior trunk

Answer 78

The anterior division of the inferior trunk.

Answer 79

In the axilla and the proximal aspect of the upper limb, the three cords give rise to five major branches. These nerves continue into the upper limb to provide innervation to the muscles and skin present. The musculocutaneous; the axillary; the median; the radial and the ulnar nerves

Answer 80

C5, C6 and C7

Answer 81

Motor Functions: Innervates the brachialis, biceps brachii and corocobrachialis muscles. Sensory Functions: Gives off the lateral cutaneous branch of the forearm, which innervates the lateral half of the anterior forearm, and a small lateral portion of the posterior forearm.

Answer 82

Motor Functions: Innervates the deltoid, teres minor and the long head of the triceps brachii. Sensory Functions: Gives off the superior lateral cutaneous nerve of arm, which innervates the inferior region of the deltoid (“regimental badge area”).

Answer 83

C6, C7, C8 and T1

Answer 84

Motor Functions: Innervates most of the flexor muscles in the forearm, the thenar muscles, and the two lateral lumbrical muscles that move the index and middle fingers. Sensory Functions: Gives off the palmar cutaneous branch, which innervates the lateral part of the palm, and the digital cutaneous branch, which innervates the lateral three and a half fingers on the anterior (palmar) surface of the hand.

Answer 85

C5, C6, C7, C8, T1

Answer 86

Motor Functions: innervates the triceps brachii, and the extensor muscles in the posterior compartment of the forearm. Sensory Functions: Innervates the posterior aspect of the arm and forearm, and the posterior, lateral aspect of the hand.

Answer 87

Motor Functions: Innervates the muscles of the hand (apart from the thenar muscles and two lateral lumbricals), flexor carpi ulnaris and medial half of flexor digitorum profundus. Sensory Functions: Innervates the anterior and posterior surfaces of the medial one and half fingers, and associated palm area.

Answer 88

Also known as the axillary inlet, this is formed by lateral border of the first rib, superior border of scapula, and the posterior border of the clavicle. It is the channel of communication between the posterior triangle of the neck and axilla

Answer 89

Formed by intertubecular groove of the humerus. It is the upper end of the humerus with the biceps branchii and the coracobranchialis

Answer 90

Consists of the serratus anterior and the thoracic wall (ribs and intercostal muscles).

Answer 91

Contains the pectoralis major and the underlying pectoralis minor and the subclavius muscles.

Answer 92

Formed by the subscapularis, teres major and latissimus dorsi.

Answer 93

Into the upper limb; via the quandrangular space and the clavipectoral triangle

Answer 94

The main route of exit is immediately inferiorly and laterally, into the upper limb. The majority of contents of the axilla region leave by this method.

Answer 95

This is a gap in the posterior wall of the axilla, allowing access to the posterior arm and shoulder area. Structures passing through include the axillary nerve and posterior circumflex humeral artery (a branch of the axillary artery.

Answer 96

It is an opening in the anterior wall of the axilla. It is bounded by the pectoralis major, deltoid, and clavicle. The cephalic vein enters the axilla via this triangle, while the medial and lateral pectoral nerves leave.

Answer 97

The axilla artery and vein; the brachial plexus; the biceps branchii and corocobranchialis and the axillary lymph nodes

Answer 98

It is the main artery supplying the upper limb. It is commonly refered as having three parts, one medial to the pectoralis minor, one posterior to pectoralis minor, and one lateral to pectoralis minor. The medial and posterior parts travel in the axilla.

Answer 99

The main vein draining the upper limb, its two largest tributaries are the cephalic and basilic veins.

Answer 100

It is a prolongation of the fascia covering the muscles in the posterior triangle of the neck.

Answer 101

There is one branch above the pectoralis minor, two behind and three below.

Answer 102

The serratus anterior

Answer 103

The cubital fossa is an area of transition between the anatomical arm and the forearm. It is located as a depression on the anterior surface of the elbow joint.

Answer 104

Lateral border - The medial border of the brachioradialis muscle; Medial border- The lateral border of the pronator teres muscle; Superior border- An imaginary line between the epicondyles of the humerus.

Answer 105

The floor of the cubital fossa is formed proximally by the brachialis, and distally by the supinator muscle. The roof consists of skin and fascia, with is reinforced by the bicipital aponeurosis. Within the roof runs the median cubital vein, which can be accessed for venepuncuture

Answer 106

The radial nerve; the biceps tendon; the brachial artery; and the median nerve

Answer 107

Superficial, intermediate and deep

Answer 108

The superficial muscles in the anterior compartment are the flexor carpi ulnaris, palmaris longus, flexor carpi radialis and pronator teres. They all originate from a common tendon, which arises from the medial epicondyle of the humerus.

Answer 109

Originates from the medial epicondyle with the other superficial flexors. It also has a long origin from the ulna. It passes into the wrist, and attaches to the pisiform carpal bone.

Answer 110

Flexion and adduction at the wrist.

Answer 111

Ulnar nerve

Answer 112

Originates from the medial epicondyle, attaches to the flexor retinaculum of the wrist.

Answer 113

Flexion at the wrist

Answer 114

Median nerve

Answer 115

Originates from the medial epicondyle, attaches to the base of metacarpals II and III.

Answer 116

Flexion and abduction at the wrist

Answer 117

Median nerve

Answer 118

It has two origins, one from the medial epicondyle, and the other from the coronoid process of the ulna. It attaches laterally to the mid-shaft of the radius.

Answer 119

Pronation of the forearm

Answer 120

Median nerve

Answer 121

The flexor digitorum superficialis is the only muscle of the intermediate compartment. It can sometimes be classed as a superficial muscle, but in most cadavers it lies between the deep and superficial muscle layers.

Answer 122

It has two heads – one originates from the medial epicondyle of the humerus, the other from the radius. The muscle splits into four tendons at the wrist, which travel through the carpal tunnel, and attache to the middle phalanges of the four fingers.

Answer 123

Flexes the metacarpophalangeal joints and proximal interphalangeal joints at the 4 fingers, and flexes at the wrist.

Answer 124

Median nerve

Answer 125

There are three muscles in the deep anterior forearm; flexor digitorum profundus, flexor pollicis longus, and pronator quadratus.

Answer 126

Originates from the ulna and associated interosseous membrane. At the wrist, it splits into four tendons, that pass through the carpal tunnel and attach to the distal phalanges of the four fingers.

Answer 127

It is the only muscle that can flex the distal interphalangeal joints of the fingers. It also flexes at metacarpophalangeal joints and at the wrist.

Answer 128

The medial half (acts on the little and ring fingers) is innervated by the ulnar nerve. The lateral half (acts on the middle and index fingers) is innervated by the median nerve.

Answer 129

Originates from the anterior surface of the radius, and surrounding interosseous membrane. Attaches to the base of the distal phalanx of the thumb.

Answer 130

Flexes the interphalangeal joint and metacarpophalangeal joint of the thumb.

Answer 131

Median Nerve

Answer 132

Originates from the anterior surface of the ulna, and attaches to the anterior surface of the radius.

Answer 133

Pronates the forearm

Answer 134

Median Nerve

Answer 135

The extrinsic muscles are located in the anterior and posterior compartments of the forearm. They control crude movements, and produce a forceful grip.

Answer 136

The intrinsic muscles of the hand are located within the hand itself. They are responsible for the fine motor functions of the hand.

Answer 137

The adductor pollicis, interossei, thenar, palmaris brevis, lumbricals and hypothenar muscles.

Answer 138

The thenar muscles are three short muscles located at the base of the thumb. The muscle bellies produce a bulge, known as the thenar eminence. They are responsible for the fine movements of the thumb. The median nerve innervates all the thenar muscles.

Answer 139

The oppenens pollicis is the largest of the thenar muscles, and lies underneath the other two.

Answer 140

Originates from the tubercle of the trapezium, and the associated flexor retinaculum. It inserts into the lateral margin of the metacarpal of the thumb.

Answer 141

Opposes the thumb, by medially rotating and flexing the metacarpal on the trapezium.

Answer 142

Median nerve

Answer 143

Originates from the tubercles of the scaphoid and trapezium, and from the associated flexor retinaculum. Attaches to lateral side of proximal phalanx.

Answer 144

Abducts the thumb

Answer 145

Median nerve

Answer 146

Originates from the tubercle of the trapezium and from the associated flexor retinaculum. Attaches to the base of the proximal phalanx of the thumb.

Answer 147

Flexes the MCP joint of the thumb

Answer 148

Median nerve

Answer 149

The hypothenar muscles produce the hypothenar eminence – a muscular protrusion on the medial side of the palm, at the base of the little finger. These muscles are similar to the thenar muscles in both name and organisation.

Answer 150

Originates from the hook of hamate and associated flexor retinaculum, inserts into the medial margin of metacarpal V.

Answer 151

It rotates the metacarpal of the little finger towards the palm, producing opposition.

Answer 152

Ulnar nerve

Answer 153

Originates from the pisiform and the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris. It attaches to the base of the proximal phalanx of the little finger.

Answer 154

Abducts the little finger

Answer 155

Ulnar nerve

Answer 156

Originates from the hook of hamata and adjacent flexor retinaculum, and inserts into the base of the proximal phalanx of the little finger.

Answer 157

Flexes the MCP joint of the little finger.

Answer 158

Ulnar Nerve

Answer 159

These are four lumbicals in the hand, each associated with a finger. They are very crucial to finger movement, linking the extensor tendons to the flexor tendons.

Answer 160

Each lumbrical originates from a tendon of the flexor digitorum profundus. They pass dorsally and laterallly around each finger, and inserts into the extensor hood.

Answer 161

The flex at the MCP joint, and extend at the IP joints of each finger.

Answer 162

The medial two lumbricals (of the little and ring fingers) are innervated by the ulnar nerve. The lateral two lumbricals (of the index and middle fingers) are innervated by the median nerve.

Answer 163

The interossei muscles are located between the metacarpals. They can be divided into two groups; the dorsal and palmar interossei. In addition to their individual actions, the interossei also assist the lumbricals in flexion and MCP joints, and extension at the IP joints.

Answer 164

The most superficial of all dorsal muscles, these can be palpated on the dorsum of the hand. There are four dorsal interossei muscles.

Answer 165

Abduct the fingers at the MCP joint

Answer 166

Ulnar nerve

Answer 167

These are located anteriorly on the hand. There are three palmar interossei muscles.

Answer 168

Each interossei originates from a medial or lateral surface of a metacarpal, and attaches into the extensor hood and proximal phalanx of same finger.

Answer 169

Adducts the fingers at the MCP joint

Answer 170

Ulnar nerve

Answer 171

This is a small, thin muscle, found very superficially in the subsutaneous tissue of the hypothenar eminence.

Answer 172

Originates from the palmar aponeurosis and flexor retinaculum, attaches to the dermis of the skin on the medial margin of the hand.

Answer 173

Wrinkles the skin of the hypothenar eminence and deepens the curvature of the hand, improving grip.

Answer 174

Ulnar nerve

Answer 175

This is large triangular muscle with two heads. The radial artery passes anteriorly through the space between the two heads, forming the deep palmar arch.

Answer 176

One head originates from metacarpal III, the other from the capitate, and adjacent areas of metacarpals II and III. They both attach into the base of the proximal phalanx of the thumb.

Answer 177

Adductor of the thumb

Answer 178

Ulnar nerve

Answer 179

CN 1, the olfactory nerve

Answer 180

Peripheral olfactory processes (receptors) in the olfactory mucosa. Central processes that return the information to the brain.

Answer 181

Form the new stem cells from which the new olfactory cells can develop

Answer 182

Tall cells in the olfactory mucose for structural support. These are analogous to the glial cells located in the CNS.

Answer 183

Secrete mucus in the olfactory mucosa?

Answer 184

It is the flexor carpi ulnaris

Answer 185

Palmaris longus

Answer 186

The flexor carpi radialis

Answer 187

The pronator teres

Answer 188

The flexor digitorum superficialis

Answer 189

The flexor digitorum profundus

Answer 190

The flexor pollicis longus

Answer 191

The pronator quadratus

Answer 192

The opponens pollicis

Answer 193

The abductor pollicis brevis

Answer 194

The flexor pollicis brevis

Answer 195

Opponens digiti minimi

Answer 196

Abductor digiti minimi

Answer 197

Flexor digiti minimi brevis

Answer 198

Originates from the proximal surface of the supraepicondylar ridge of the humerus, and attaches to the distal end of the radius, just before the radial styloid process.

Answer 199

Flexes at the elbow.

Answer 200

The ECRL originates from the supracondylar ridge, while the ECRB originates from the lateral epicondyle. Their tendons attach to metacarpal bones II and III.

Answer 201

Extends and abducts the wrist.

Answer 202

Originates from the lateral epicondyle. The tendon continues into in the distal part of the forearm, where it splits into four, and inserts into the extensor hood of each finger.

Answer 203

Extends medial four fingers at the MCP and IP joints.

Answer 204

Originates from the lateral epicondyle of the humerus. It attaches, with the extensor digitorum tendon, into the extensor hood of the little finger.

Answer 205

Extends the little finger, and contributes to extension at the wrist.

Answer 206

Originates from the lateral epicondyle of the humurus, and attaches to the base of metacarpal V.

Answer 207

Extension and adduction of wrist.

Answer 208

Originates from the lateral epicondyle, and attaches to the posterior and lateral part of the olecrannon.

Answer 209

Moves the ulna during pronation and extends at the elbow joint.

Answer 210

The supinator, abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis brevis, extensor pollicis longus and extensor indicis.

Answer 211

It has two heads of origin. One originates from the lateral epicondyle of the humerus, the other from the posterior surface of the ulna. They insert together into the posterior surface of the radius.

Answer 212

Supinates the forearm.

Answer 213

Originates from the interosseous membrane and the adjacent posterior surfaces of the radius and ulna. It attaches to the lateral side of the base of metacarpal I.

Answer 214

Abducts the thumb.

Answer 215

Originates from the posterior surface of the radius and interosseous membrane. It attaches to the base of the proximal phalanx of the thumb.

Answer 216

Extends at the metacarpophalangeal and carpometacarpal joints of the thumb.

Answer 217

Originates from the posterior surface of the ulna and interosseous membrane. It attaches to the distal phalanx of the thumb.

Answer 218

Extends all joints of the thumb: carpometacarpal, metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal.

Answer 219

Originates from the posterior surface of the ulna and interosseous membrane, distal to the extensor pollicis longus. Attaches to the extensor hood of the index finger.

Answer 220

Extends the index finger.

Answer 221

A set of eight irregularly shaped bones. These are located in the wrist area.

Answer 222

There are five metacarpals, each one related to a digit

Answer 223

The bones of the fingers. Each finger has three phalanges, except for the thumb, which has two.

Answer 224

Scaphoid (some) Lunate (lovers) Triquetrum (try) Pisiform (positions) Trapesium (that) Trapezoid (they) Capitate (can't) Hamate (handle)

Answer 225

Ulnar (medial) border: Tendon of the extensor pollicis longus. Radial (lateral) border: Tendons of the abductor pollicis longus and extensor pollicis brevis. Proximal border: Styloid process of the radius. Floor: Carpal bones; scaphoid and trapezium. Roof: Skin.

Answer 226

The radial artery, a branch of the radial nerve, and the cephalic vein

Answer 227

Distally – The proximal row of the carpal bones (except the pisiform). Proximally – The distal end of the radius, and the articular disk.

Answer 228

It prevents the ulnar bone from articulating with the carpal bones. It is a fibrocartilginous ligament, which lies over the superior surface of the ulna.

Answer 229

A synovial joint

Answer 230

The fibrous outer layer attaches to the radius, ulna and the proximal row of the carpal bones. The internal layer is comprised of a synovial membrane, secreting synovial fluid which lubricates the joint.

Answer 231

Dorsal radiocarpal; palmar radiocarpal; ulnar collateral; radial collateral

Answer 232

It is found on the palmar (anterior) side of the hand. It passes from the radius to both rows of carpal bones.

Answer 233

Apart from increasing stability of the wrist joint, it ensures that the hand follows the forearm during supination.

Answer 234

It is found on the dorsum (posterior) side of the hand. It passes from the radius to both rows of carpal bones.

Answer 235

It contributes to the stability of the wrist, but also ensures that the hand follows the forearm during pronation.

Answer 236

Runs from the ulnar styloid process to the triquetrum and pisiform.

Answer 237

Works in union with the other collateral ligament to prevent excessive lateral joint displacement.

Answer 238

Runs from the radial styloid process to the scaphoid and trapezium.

Answer 239

Works in union with the other collateral ligament to prevent excessive lateral joint displacement.

Answer 240

Produced mainly by the flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor carpi radialis, with assistance from the flexor digitorum superficialis.

Answer 241

Produced mainly by the extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis, and extensor carpi ulnaris, with assistance from the extensor digitorum.

Answer 242

Produced by the extensor carpi ulnaris and flexor carpi ulnaris

Answer 243

Produced by the abductor pollicis longus, flexor carpi radialis, extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis.

Answer 244

This is located near the elbow, and is an articulation between the head of the radius, and the radial notch of the ulna.

Answer 245

This is located near the wrist, and is an articulation between the ulnar notch of the radius, and the ulnar head.

Answer 246

(1) Holds the radius and ulna together during pronation and supination of the forearm, providing addition stability. (2) Acts as a site of attachment for muscles in the anterior and posterior compartments of the forearm. (3) Transfers forces from the radius to the ulna.

Answer 247

Where the bones concerned are bound by fibrous tissue. Fibrous joints can further subclassified into sutures, gomphmoses and syndesmoses.

Answer 248

Immovable joint (called a synarthrosis); Only found between the bones of the skull; There is limited movement until about 20 years of age, after which they become fixed.

Answer 249

Immovable joint (called a synarthrosis); Where the teeth articulate with their sockets in the maxillae (upper teeth) or the mandible(lower teeth); The fibrous connection that binds the tooth and socket is the periodontal ligament

Answer 250

Slightly movable joins (called an amphiarthrosis); Usual structure is bones held together by together by an interosseous membrane; Middle radio-ulnar and middle tibiofibular joint are key examples

Answer 251

The bones are attached by fibrocartilage or hyaline cartilage. They be split into primary and secondary cartilgainous joints.

Answer 252

Also known as primary cartilaginous joints, they only involve hyaline cartilage; The joint between the diaphysis and epiphysis of a growing long bone is a synchondrosis.

Answer 253

A synovial joint is a joint filled with synovial fluid.

Answer 254

These joints tend to be fully moveable (known as diarthroses), and are the main type of joint found around the body.

Answer 255

Permits flexion and extension Elbow joint is a notable example

Answer 256

Concave and convex joint surfaces E.g. Metatarsophalangeal joint

Answer 257

Permit gliding or sliding movements E.g. Acromioclavicular joint

Answer 258

Allows rotation; a round bony process fits into a bony ligamentous socket E.g. Atlantoaxial joint & proximal radio-ulnar joint

Answer 259

Permits flexion & extension, adduction, abduction & circumduction E.g. Metacarpophalangeal joint

Answer 260

Permits movement in several axis; a rounded head fits into a concavity E.g. Glenohumeral Joint.

Answer 261

Lubrication, Nutrient distribution Shock absorption.

Answer 262

This is a fibrous capsule which is continuous with the periosteum of articulating bones. It consists of two layers.

Answer 263

The outer fibrous layer is made up white fibrous tissue, called the capsular ligament. Holds together articulating bones and supports the synovium.

Answer 264

The synovium is the inner synovial layer, a highly vascularised layer of connective tissue. It absorbs and secretes synovial fluid, and is responsible for the mediation of nutrient exchange between blood and joint.

Answer 265

The bones of a synovial joint are covered by a thin layer of hyaline cartilage which serves to line the epiphysis of the bone.

Answer 266

It minimises friction upon joint movement and absorbs shock.

Answer 267

Accessory ligaments are separate ligaments or part of joint capsule that prevents any extreme movements that may damage the joint.

Answer 268

They are made up of bundles of dense regular connective tissue, which are highly adapted for resisting strain.

Answer 269

A bursa is a small sac lined by synovial membrane and filled with synovial fluid.

Answer 270

They are placed at key points of friction in a joint, providing the joint with free movement.

Answer 271

The nerves supplying a joint also supply the muscles moving the joint and the skin covering their distal attachments.

Answer 272

Joints receive blood via articular arteries which arise from the vessels around the joint.

Answer 273

The articular arteries are located within the joint capsule, mostly in the synovial membrane.

Answer 274

To ensure a blood to and across the joint regardless of position of joint

Answer 275

The formation of blood cells from haematopoietic stem cells found in the bone marrow.

Answer 276

Haematopoeisis; Lipid and mineral storage; Support; Protection;

Answer 277

The central compartment of the thoracic cavity, containing all thoracic visceral structures except the lungs

Answer 278

It is situated between the sternal angle and the superior thoracic aperture.

Answer 279

It is situated below the sternal angle, and is subdivided by the pericardium into the anterior mediastinum, middle mediastinum and posterior mediastinum.

Answer 280

Green - superior mediastinum Purple - Anterior mediastinum Yellow - middle mediastinum Blue - posterior mediastinum

Answer 281

Blue - Ribs Yellow - Costal cartilages Green - Sternum

Answer 282

They have a protective function and also have a role in breathing

Answer 283

The typical ribs have a generalised structure, while the atypical ribs have variations on this structure.

Answer 284

A head, a neck and a body

Answer 285

It is wedge shaped, and has two articular facets separated by a wedge of bone

Answer 286

One facet articulates with the numerically corresponding vertebrae, and the other articulates with the vertebrae above.

Answer 287

It has no bony prominences, but simply connects the head with the body.

Answer 288

Where the neck meets the body there is a roughed tubercle, with a facet for articulation with the transverse process of the corresponding vertebrae.

Answer 289

It is flat and curved

Answer 290

The internal surface of the rib shaft has a groove for the neurovascular supply of the thorax, protecting the vessels and nerves from damage.

Answer 291

1 , 2, 11 and 12

Answer 292

All of the twelve ribs articulate posteriorly with the vertebrae of the spine. Each rib forms two joints: costotransverse joint and the costovertebral joint

Answer 293

They are the posterior articulations of the ribs

Answer 294

Ribs 1-7 attach independently to the sternum. Ribs 8 – 10 attach the costal cartilages superior to them. Ribs 11 and 12 do not attach anywhere, and end in the abdominal muscles. Because of this, they are sometimes called ‘floating ribs’.

Answer 295

It protects the internal thoracic viscera

Answer 296

The sternum can be divided into three parts; the manubrium, body and xiphoid process.

Answer 297

The superior aspect of the manubrium is concave, producing a depression known as the jugular notch

Answer 298

It is the sternum. The green area is the manubrium. The red area is the body and the purple area is the xiphoid process

Answer 299

The thoracic spine

Answer 300

Vertebral body is heart shaped; Presence of costal facets on the sides of each vertebral body; Presence of costal facets on the transverse processes; The spinous processes are long and slant inferiorly.

Answer 301

The superior and inferior costal facets are located on the sides of each vertebral body. The superior facet articulates with the head of the adjacent rib, and the inferior facet articulates with the head of the rib below

Answer 302

Adjacent vertebral bodies are joined by intervertebral discs, made of fibrocartilage. This is a type of cartilaginous joint, known as a symphysis.

Answer 303

They are formed by the articulation of superior and inferior articular processes from adjacent vertebrae. It is a synovial type joint.

Answer 304

Anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments; Ligamentum flavum; Interspinous ligament; Supraspinous ligament

Answer 305

Long ligaments that run the length of the vertebral column, covering the vertebral bodies and intervertebral discs.

Answer 306

Connects the laminae of adjacent vertebrae.

Answer 307

Connects the spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae.

Answer 308

Connects the tips of adjacent spinous processes.

Answer 309

Red - anterior longitudinal ligament Purple - posterior longitudinal ligament Blue - ligamentum flavum Green - interspinal ligament Yellow - suprapinous ligament

Answer 310

the intercostals (external, internal and innermost), subcostals, and transversus thoracis.

Answer 311

They run inferoanteriorly from the rib above to the rib below, and are continuous with the external oblique of the abdomen.

Answer 312

They are innervated by the intercostal nerves, and act to increase the volume of the thoracic cage during forced inspiration.

Answer 313

Like the external intercostals, they run from the rib above to the one below, but in an opposite direction (inferoposteriorly). They are continuous with the internal oblique muscle of the abdominal wall.

Answer 314

They are innervated by the intercostal nerve, and act to decrease the volume of the thoracic cage during forced expiration.

Answer 315

They are separated by the intercostal neurovascular bundle

Answer 316

These muscles originate from the lower part of the manubrium and xiphoid process, attaching to the costal cartilages of ribs 2-6. They are continuous with the transversus abdominus inferiorly.

Answer 317

They are innervated by the intercostal nerves and act to pull the ribs downwards, providing a weak expiratory function

Answer 318

Structure of the diaphragm

Answer 319

Some fibres from the right crus surround the oesophageal opening, acting as a physiological sphincter to prevent reflux of gastric contents into the oesophagus.

Answer 320

Transmits the oesophagus, vagus nerves, and oesophageal branches of the left gastric vessels.

Answer 321

Transmits the aorta, thoracic duct (a large lymphatic vessel) and azygous vein.

Answer 322

Transmits the inferior vena cava.

Answer 323

Each phrenic nerve is formed in the neck within the cervical plexus, and contains fibres from spinal roots C3-C5.

Answer 324

The majority of the arterial supply to the diaphragm is delivered via the inferior phrenic arteries, which arise directly from the abdominal aorta.

Answer 325

Covers the lateral aspect of the mediastinum (the central component of the thoracic cavity, containing a number of organ).

Answer 326

Lines the extension of the pleural cavity into the neck.

Answer 327

Covers the inner aspect of the ribs, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles.

Answer 328

Covers the thoracic (superior) surface of the diaphragm.

Answer 329

It lubricates the surfaces of the pleurae, allowing them to slide over each other. The serous fluid also produces a surface tension, pulling the parietal and visceral pleura together. This ensures that when the thorax expands, the lung also expands, filling with air.

Answer 330

Anteriorly and posteroinferiorly, the pleural cavity is not completely filled by the lungs. This gives rise to recesses – where the opposing surfaces of the parietal pleura touch.

Answer 331

Costodiaphragmatic and Costomediastinal

Answer 332

It is located between the costal pleurae and the diaphragmatic pleura.

Answer 333

It is located between the costal pleurae and the mediastinal pleurae, behind the sternum.

Answer 334

The parietal pleura is sensitive to pressure, pain, and temperature. It produces a well localised pain.

Answer 335

Intercostal nerves – innervates the costal and cervical pleura; Phrenic nerve – innervates the mediastinal and diaphragmatic pleura.

Answer 336

Intercostal arteries

Answer 337

Its sensory fibres only detect stretch.

Answer 338

It also receives autonomic innervation from the pulmonary plexus (a network of nerves derived from the sympathetic trunk and vagus nerve).

Answer 339

Arterial supply is via the bronchial circulation (internal thoracic arteries), which also supplies the parenchyma of the lungs.

Answer 340

The left and right pulmonary arteries, which both branch into two separate arteries (even though the right lung has three lobes)

Answer 341

The pulmonary veins receive oxygenatedblood from the lungs, and deliver it to the left atrium.

Answer 342

There are four pulmonary veins, two for each lung, one superior and one inferior.

Answer 343

The superior pulmonary veins return blood from the upper lobes of the lung, and the inferior veins return blood from the lower lobes.

Answer 344

It supplies blood to the brain, head, and the right side of the thorax.

Answer 345

It supplies blood to the left side of the neck and head.

Answer 346

It supplies blood to the left side of the thorax.

Answer 347

It is formed by the brachiocephalic veins joining together.

Answer 348

It is formed in the pelvis by the common iliac veins joining together. It travels through the abdomen, collecting blood from hepatic veins, lumbar veins, gonadal veins, renal veins and phrenic veins.

Answer 349

Yellow - superior lobe Green - middle lobe Blue - lower lobe

Answer 350

The mediastinal surface, the diaphragmatic surface and the costal surface

Answer 351

The lung root is a collection of structures that suspends the lung from the mediastinum.

Answer 352

Each root contains a bronchus, pulmonary artery, two pulmonary veins, bronchial vessels, pulmonary plexus of nerves and lymphatic vessels.

Answer 353

Trachea -\> main bronchus -\> lobar bronchi -\> segmental bronchi -\> terminal bronchioles -\> respiratory bronchioles -\> alveoli

Answer 354

The bronchi, lung roots, visceral pleura and supporting lung tissues require an extra nutritive blood supply. This is delivered by the bronchial arteries, which arise from the descending aorta.

Answer 355

Derived from the vagus nerve. They stimulate secretion from the bronchial glands, contraction of the bronchial smooth muscle, and vasodilation of the pulmonary vessels.

Answer 356

Derived from the sympathetic trunks. They stimulate relaxation of the bronchial smooth muscle, and vasoconstriction of the pulmonary vessels.

Answer 357

Conduct pain impulses to the sensory ganglion of the vagus nerve.

Answer 358

The recurrent laryngeal nerve

Answer 359

The bronchi derive innervation from pulmonary branches of the vagus nerve (CN X).

Answer 360

Bronchioles which transport air but lack glands and are not involved in gas exchange. Proximal to the terminal bronchioles

Answer 361

Superiorly – Inferior border of the mandible (jawbone) Laterally – Medial border of the sternocleidomastoid Medially – Imaginary sagittal line down midline of body

Answer 362

stylohyoid, digastric, mylohyoid, and geniohyoid

Answer 363

Omohyoid, sternohyoid, thyrohyoid, and sternothyroid

Answer 364

Triangular vertebral foramen; Bifid spinous process – this is where the spinous process splits into two distally; Transverse foramina – holes in the transverse processes.

Answer 365

They give passage to the vertebral artery, vein and sympathetic nerves.

Answer 366

It is a cervical vertebrae

Answer 367

The atlas (C1) differs from the other cervical vertebrae in that it has no vertebral body and no spinous process. It also has an articular facet anteriorly, which articulates with the dens of the axis.

Answer 368

The axis (C2) is easily identifiable due to its dens (odontoid process) which extends superiorly from the anterior portion of the vertebra. The dens articulates with the articular facet of the atlas

Answer 369

The pharynx is a muscular tube that connects the nasal cavities to the larynx and oesophagus.

Answer 370

There are two types of muscles that form the walls of the pharynx – longitudinal and circular.

Answer 371

All of them are innervated by the vagus nerve, except for the stylopharyngeus, which is innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve.

Answer 372

The circular muscles contract sequentially from superior to inferior to constrict the lumen and propel the bolus of food inferiorly into the oesophagus.

Answer 373

The superior pharyngeal constrictor, the middle pharyngeal constrictor and the lower pharyngeal constrictor

Answer 374

The superior pharyngeal constrictor is found in the oropharynx.

Answer 375

Middle pharyngeal constrictor is found in the laryngopharynx.

Answer 376

It is found in the laryngopharynx and has two components. The superior component (thyropharyngeus) has oblique fibres that attach to the thyroid cartilage and the inferior component (cricopharyngeus) has horizontal fibres that attach to the cricoid cartilage.

Answer 377

The pharynx

Answer 378

The longitudinal muscles shorten and widen the pharynx, and elevate the larynx during swallowing.

Answer 379

Stylopharyngeus; Palatopharyngeus; Salpingopharyngeus:

Answer 380

It is from the styloid process of the temporal bone to the pharynx, innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX)

Answer 381

It is from hard palate of the oral cavity to the pharynx, innervated by the vagus nerve (CN X)

Answer 382

It is from the Eustachian tube to the pharynx, innervated by the vagus nerve (CN X). In addition to contributing to swallowing, it also opens the Eustachian tube to equalize the pressure in the middle ear with the atmosphere.

Answer 383

Maxillary nerve (CN V2)

Answer 384

Glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX).

Answer 385

Vagus nerve (CN X)

Answer 386

All the muscles of the pharynx are innervated by the vagus nerve (CN X), except for the stylopharyngeus, which is innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX).

Answer 387

Arterial supply is via branches of the external carotid artery: ascending pharyngeal, lingual, facial and maxillary arteries.

Answer 388

Yellow - nasopharynx Green - oropharynx Blue - laryngopharynx

Answer 389

The oesophagus originates in the neck, at the level of the sixth cervical vertebrae. It is continuous with the laryngeal part of the pharynx.

Answer 390

It connects the oesophagus to the border of the oesophageal hiatus. This permits independent movement of the oesophagus and diaphragm during respiration and swallowing.

Answer 391

The abdominal part of oesophagus is approximately 2cm long – it terminates by joining the cardiac orifice of the stomach at level of T11.

Answer 392

The oesophagus consists of an internal circular and external longitudinal layer of muscle.

Answer 393

Superior third – voluntary striated muscle Middle third – voluntary striated and smooth muscle Inferior third – smooth muscle

Answer 394

The upper sphincter is an anatomical, striated muscle sphincter at the junction between the pharynx and oesophagus. It is produced by the cricopharyngeus muscle.

Answer 395

Normally, it is constricted to prevent the entrance of air into the oesophagus.

Answer 396

The sphincter is classified as a physiological (or functional) sphincter, as it does not have any specific sphincteric muscle.

Answer 397

The oesophagus enters the stomach at an acute angle; The walls of the intra-abdominal section of the oesophagus is compressed when there is a positive intra-abdominal pressure; The folds of mucosa present aid in occluding the lumen at the gastro-oesophageal junction; The right crus of the diaphragm has a “pinch-cock” effect

Answer 398

During oesophageal peristalsis, the sphincter is relaxed to allow food to enter the stomach. Otherwise at rest, the function of this sphincter is to prevent the reflux of acidic gastric contents into the oesophagus.

Answer 399

They come from the branches of the thoracic aorta and the inferior thyroid artery (a branch of the thyrocervical trunk).

Answer 400

The abdominal oesophagus is supplied by the left gastric artery (a branch of the coeliac trunk) and left inferior phrenic artery.

Answer 401

The thyroid gland is located in the anterior neck, spanning between the C5 and T1 vertebrae. It is an endocrine gland.

Answer 402

It is divided into two lobes which are connected by an isthmus.

Answer 403

The thyroid gland secretes hormones directly into the blood. Therefore it needs to be highly vascularised.

Answer 404

The superior and inferior thryoid arteries. These are paired arteries arising on both the left and right.

Answer 405

The thyroid gland is innervated by branches derived from the sympathetic trunk. However, these nerves do

Answer 406

The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior aspect of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland. They are flattened and oval in shape, situated external to the gland itself, but within its sheath.

Answer 407

The posterior aspect of the thyroid gland is supplied by the inferior thyroid arteries. Thus its branches also supply the nearby parathyroid glands.

Answer 408

The lymphatic vessels of the parathyroid glands drain (along with those of the thyroid gland) into the deep cervical lymph nodes and paratracheal lymph nodes.

Answer 409

Arises from the styloid process of the temporal bone, and attaches to the lateral side of the hyoid bone.

Answer 410

Initiates a swallowing actions by pulling the hyoid bone in an posterior and superior direction.

Answer 411

Facial Nerve (VII).

Answer 412

The anterior belly arises from the digastric fossa of the mandible. The posterior belly arises from the mastoid process of the temporal bone. The two bellies are connected by an intermediate tendon, which is attached to the hyoid bone via a fibrous sling.

Answer 413

Depresses the mandible and elevates the hyoid bone.

Answer 414

The two parts of the digastric muscles have different innervations. The anterior belly is innervated by the trigeminal nerve, the posterior by the facial nerve.

Answer 415

It originates from the mylohyoid line of the mandible, and attaches onto the hyoid bone.

Answer 416

Elevates the floor of the mouth and the hyoid bone.

Answer 417

Trigeminal nerve.

Answer 418

Arises from the inferior mental spine of the mandible. It then travels inferiorly and posteriorly to attach to the hyoid bone.

Answer 419

Depresses the mandible and elevates the hyoid bone.

Answer 420

By C1 roots that run within hypoglossal nerve.

Answer 421

Red - geniohyoid Purple - mylohyoid Yellow - digastric Green - stylohyoid

Answer 422

The sternohyoid muscle originates from the sternum and sternoclavicular joint. It ascends to insert onto the hyoid bone.

Answer 423

Depresses the hyoid bone

Answer 424

Anterior rami of C1-C3, carried by a branch of the ansa cervicalis.

Answer 425

The inferior belly of the omohyoid arises from the scapula. It runs superiomedially, moving underneath the sternocleidomastoid. Here, it is attached to the the superior belly by an intermediate tendon. This tendon is attached to the clavicle by the deep cervical fascia. The superior belly ascends to attach to the hyoid bone.

Answer 426

Depresses the hyoid bone.

Answer 427

Anterior rami of C1-C3, carried by a branch of the ansa cervicalis.

Answer 428

The sternothryoid runs from the manubrium of the sternum to the thyroid cartilage.

Answer 429

Depresses the thyroid cartilage.

Answer 430

Anterior rami of C1-C3, carried by a branch of the ansa cervicalis.

Answer 431

It arises from the thyroid cartilage of the larynx, and ascends to attach to the hyoid bone.

Answer 432

It depresses the hyoid. However, if the hyoid is fixed, it can raise the larynx.

Answer 433

Anterior ramus of C1, carried within the hypoglossal nerve.

Answer 434

Blue - sternohyoid Green - omohyoid Yellow - thyrohyoid

Answer 435

Blue - sternohyoid Green - omohyoid Yellow - thyrohyoid Red - sternothyroid

Answer 436

At T4 into the right external and right internal carotid arteries

Answer 437

From the subclavian. They enter the cranial cavity via the foramen magnum, and converge.

Answer 438

They then give rise to the basilar arteries, which supply the brain.

Answer 439

Red - Cervical Blue - Thoracic Yellow - Lumbar Green - Sacral Purple - Coccyx

Answer 440

Protection; Support; Axis; Movement

Answer 441

its size increases as the vertebral column descends (having to bare increasing amounts of weight each time).

Answer 442

The red part is the vertebral body. The blue part is the vertebral arch

Answer 443

Gold - spinous process Purple - lamina Yellow - superior articular process Green - pedicles Red - tranverse process

Answer 444

Movements of the shoulder

Answer 445

Move the thoracic cage

Answer 446

They move the vertebral column

Answer 447

Originates from the lower part of the ligamentum nuchae, and the cervical and thoracic spines (usually C7 – T3). The fibres pass in an inferolateral direction, attaching to ribs 2-5.

Answer 448

Intercostal nerves

Answer 449

Elevates ribs 2-5

Answer 450

Originates from the thoracic and lumbar spines (usually T11 – L3). The fibres pass in an superolateral direction, attaching to ribs 9-12.

Answer 451

Intercostal nerves.

Answer 452

Elevates ribs 9-12

Answer 453

Blue - pons Green - medulla oblongata Yellow - spinal cord Red - filum terminale

Answer 454

Each spinal nerve begins as an anterior (motor) and a posterior (sensory) nerve root. These roots arise from the spinal cord, and unite at the intervertebral foramina, forming a single spinal nerve.

Answer 455

It splits into the posterior rami and the anterior rami

Answer 456

The arterial supply to the spinal cord is via three longitudinal arteries – the anterior spinal artery and the paired posterior spinal arteries.

Answer 457

It is potential space between the parietal and visceral peritoneum.

Answer 458

It contains only a thin film of peritoneal fluid, which consists of water, electrolytes, leukocytes and antibodies.

Answer 459

It acts as a lubricant, enabling free movement of the abdominal viscera; The antibodies fight infection.

Answer 460

The peritoneal cavity can be divided into the greater and lesser peritoneal sacs.

Answer 461

It is further divided into two compartments by the mesentery of the transverse colon (known as the transverse mesocolon):

Answer 462

The supracolic compartment lies above the transverse mesocolon and contains the stomach, liver and spleen.

Answer 463

The infracolic compartment lies below the transverse mesocolon and contains the small intestine, ascending and descending colon. The infracolic compartment is further divided into left and right infracolic spaces by the mesentery of the small intestine.

Answer 464

The lesser sac lies posterior to the stomach and lesser omentum.

Answer 465

It allows the stomach to move freely against the structures posterior and inferior to it.

Answer 466

The lesser sac is connected with the greater sac through an opening in in the omental bursa, the epiploic foramen.

Answer 467

It receives the same somatic nerve supply as the region of the abdominal wall that it lines, therefore pain from the parietal peritoneum is well localised and it is sensitive to pressure, pain, laceration and temperature.

Answer 468

The visceral peritoneum has the same nerve supply as the viscera it invests. Unlike the parietal peritoneum, pain from the visceral peritoneum is poorly localised and is only sensitive to stretch and chemical irritation.

Answer 469

Intraperitoneal organs are completely covered in visceral peritoneum, anteriorly and posteriorly. Examples include the stomach, liver and spleen.

Answer 470

These organs are only covered in peritoneum on their anterior surface.

Answer 471

Primarily retroperitoneal organs develop and remain outside of the parietal peritoneum. The oesophagus, rectum and kidneys are all primarily retroperitoneal

Answer 472

Secondarily retroperitoneal organs were initially intraperitoneal, suspended by mesentary. Through the course of embryogenesis they became retroperitoneal, with their mesentery fusing with the posterior abdominal wall. Thus, peritoneum only covers the anterior surface. Examples of secondarily retroperitoneal organs include is the ascending and descending colon.

Answer 473

A mesentery is double layer of visceral peritoneum. It connects an intraperitoneal organ to the (usually) posterior abdominal wall.

Answer 474

It provides a pathway for nerves, blood vessels and lymphatics from the body wall to the viscera.

Answer 475

The omentum is a double layer of peritoneum that extends from the stomach and proximal part of the duodenum to other abdominal organs.

Answer 476

The greater omentum consists of four layers of peritoneum.

Answer 477

The lesser omentum is considerably smaller and attaches from the lesser curvature of the stomach and the proximal part of the duodenum to the liver.

Answer 478

It consists of two parts: the hepatogastric ligament and the hepatoduodenal ligament.

Answer 479

The inguinal canal is a short passage that extends inferiorly and medially, through the inferior part of the abdominal wall. It is superior and parallel to the inguinal ligament.

Answer 480

It acts as a pathway by which structures can pass from the abdominal wall to the externalgenitalia.

Answer 481

The inguinal ligament runs from the pubic tubercle to the anterior superior iliac spine, so the midpoint is halfway between these structures. The opening to the inguinal canal is located just above this point.

Answer 482

It is halfway between the pubic symphysis and the anterior superior iliac spine. The femoral artery crosses into the lower limb at this anatomical landmark.

Answer 483

It is found above the midpoint of the inguinal ligament. which is lateral to the epigastric vessels. The ring is created by the transversalis fascia, which invaginates to form a covering of the contents of the inguinal canal.

Answer 484

It lies just superior to the pubic tubercle. It is a triangle shaped opening, formed by the evagination of the external oblique, which forms another covering of the inguinal canal contents.

Answer 485

This opening contains intercrural fibres, which run perpendicular to the aponeurosis of the external oblique and prevent the ring from widening.

Answer 486

In men, the spermatic cord passes through the inguinal canal, to supply and drain the testes. In women, the round ligament of uterus traverses through the canal.

Answer 487

Lumbar vertebrae

Answer 488

Transverse processes are long and slender; Articular processes have nearly vertical facets; Spinous processes are short and broad; Accessory processes can be found on the posterior aspect of the base of each transverse process; Mammillary processes can be found on the posterior surface of each superior articular process.

Answer 489

The vertebral bodies are large and kidney-shaped. They are deeper anteriorly than posteriorly, producing the lumbosacral angle (the angle between the long axis of the lumbar region and that of the sacrum). The vertebral foramen is triangular in shape.

Answer 490

Skin; Superficial fascia (or subcutaneous tissue); Muscles and associated fascia; Parietal peritoneum.

Answer 491

A single sheet of connective tissue. This is continuous with the superficial fascia in other regions of the body.

Answer 492

It is divided into two layers; the fatty superficial layer (Camper’s fascia) and the membranous deep layer (Scarpa’s fascia). Superficial vessels and nerves run between these two layers of fascia.

Answer 493

The largest and most superficial flat muscle in the abdominal wall. Its fibres run inferomedially. As the fibres approach the mid-line, they form an aponeurosis

Answer 494

This muscle lies deep to the external oblique. It is smaller and thinner in structure, with its fibres running superiormedially (perpendicular to the fibres of the external oblique). Near the midline it forms aponeurotic fibres which contribute to the linea alba.

Answer 495

In the mid-line, the aponeuroses of all the flat muscles become entwined, forming the linea alba. This is a fibrous structure that extends from the xiphoid process of the sternum to the pubic symphysis.

Answer 496

The deepest of the flat muscles, with transversely running fibres. Like the other flat muscles, it contributes aponeurotic fibres to the linea alba.

Answer 497

This is a long, paired muscle, found either side of the midline in the abdominal wall. It is split into two by the linea alba.

Answer 498

As well as assisting the flat muscles in compressing the abdominal viscera, the rectus abdominus also stabilises the pelvis during walking, and depresses the ribs.

Answer 499

This is a small triangle shaped muscle, found superficially to the rectus abdominus. It is located inferiorly, with its base on the pubis bone, and the apex of the triangle attached to the linea alba.

Answer 500

It acts to tense the linea alba.

Answer 501

The rectus sheath is formed by the aponeuroses of the three flat muscles, and encloses the rectus abdominus and pyramidalis muscles.

Answer 502

All of the aponeuroses move to the anterior wall of the rectus sheath. At this point, there is no posterior wall to the sheath; the rectus abdominus is in direct contact with the transversalis fascia.

Answer 503

Horizontal line halfway between the xiphoid process and the umbilicus, passing through the pylorus of the stomach.

Answer 504

Horizontal line that joins the iliac crests.

Answer 505

It originates from the iliac crest and liolumbar ligament. The fibres travel superomedially, inserting onto the transverse processes of L1 – L4 and the inferior border of the 12th rib.

Answer 506

Extension and lateral flexion of the vertebral column, It also fixes the 12th rib during inspiration, so that the contraction of diaphragm is not wasted.

Answer 507

Anterior rami of T12- L4 nerves.

Answer 508

Originates from the transverse processes and vertebral bodies of T12 – L5. It then moves inferiorly and laterally, running deep to the inguinal ligament, and attaching to the lesser trochanter of the femur.

Answer 509

Flexion of the thigh at the hip and lateral flexion of the vertebral column.

Answer 510

Anterior rami of L1 – L3 nerves

Answer 511

Originates from the vertebral bodies of T12 and L1 and attaches to a ridge on the superior ramus of the pubic bone, known as the pectineal line.

Answer 512

Flexion of the vertebral column

Answer 513

Anterior rami of the L1 spinal nerve.

Answer 514

Originates from surface of the iliac fossa and anterior inferior iliac spine. Its fibres combine with the tendon of the psoas major, inserting into the lesser trochanter of the femur.

Answer 515

Flexion of the thigh at the hip joint.

Answer 516

Femoral nerve (L2 – L4).

Answer 517

Between the levels of T7 and L3 vertebrae

Answer 518

The cardia, fundus, body and pylorus

Answer 519

The greater curvature forms the long convex lateral border of the stomach

Answer 520

The short gastric arteries, and the right and left gastro-omental arteries supply branches to the greater curvature.

Answer 521

The lesser curvature forms the shorter concave medial surface of the stomach

Answer 522

It is supplied by the left gastric artery and right gastric branch of the hepatic artery.

Answer 523

The lesser curvature

Answer 524

These folds become most prominent toward the pyloric part and greater curvature

Answer 525

There are two sphincters of the stomach, one at each end. They function to control what enters and exits the stomach, and when.

Answer 526

The pyloric sphincter lies between the pylorus and the duodenum. It controls of the exit of chyme (food and gastric acid mixture) from the stomach.

Answer 527

It contains smooth muscle, which thickens to control the discharge of stomach contents through the orifice.

Answer 528

Emptying of the stomach occurs intermittently when intragastric pressure overcomes the resistance of the pylorus

Answer 529

The greater omentum hangs down from the greater curvature of the stomach. It drapes over the transverse colon and folds back upon itself before reaching the posterior abdominal wall.

Answer 530

It features many lymph nodes, which contain macrophages to help combat infections of the GI tract.

Answer 531

The lesser omentum is continuous with peritoneal layers of the stomach and duodenum. These two layers combine at the lesser curvature, and ascend to attach to the liver.

Answer 532

The main function of the lesser omentum is to attach the stomach and duodenum to the liv

Answer 533

The arterial supply to the stomach comes from the celiac trunk and its branches.

Answer 534

Anastomoses form along the lesser curvature by the right and left gastric arteriesand along the greater curvature by the right and left gastro-omental arteries.

Answer 535

It is the first main branch of the abdominal aorta, it splits off at T12.

Answer 536

The left gastric artery, the common hepatic artery and the splenic artery

Answer 537

The left is a branch directly from the celiac artery. The right is a branch of the common hepatic, which is a branch of the celiac artery

Answer 538

It is a terminal branch of the gastroduodenal artery, which arises from the common hepatic artery, from the celiac artery.

Answer 539

It is a branch of the splenic artery, which arises from the celiac trunk.

Answer 540

The parasympathetic nerve supply comes from the posterior vagal trunks, derived from the vagus nerve.

Answer 541

Parasympathetic activity increases stomach motility, gastric juice secretion and relaxation of the sphincters.

Answer 542

The sympathetic nerve supply from the T6-T9 spinal cord segments pass to the celiac plexus.

Answer 543

Sympathetic activity reduces motility, contracts the sphincters and inhibits gastric juice secretion.

Answer 544

Retroperitoneal

Answer 545

Intraperitoneal

Answer 546

The initial part of the duodenum is supplied by gastroduodenal artery, a branch of the celiac trunk

Answer 547

Distal to the major duodenal papilla, the inferior pancreaticodudenal artery supplies the duodenum. It is a branch of the branch of superior mesenteric artery.

Answer 548

The superior mesenteric artery arises from the aorta at the level of the L1 vertebrae, immediately inferior to the celiac trunk

Answer 549

It receives digested food from the small intestine, from which it absorbs water and sodium, forming faeces. The bowel can then act as a temporary store of faeces until defecation.

Answer 550

Attached to the surface of the large intestine are omental appendices – small pouches of peritoneum, filled with fat.

Answer 551

Running longitudinally along the surface of the large bowel are three strips of muscle, known as the tenia coli. The tenia coli contract to shorten the wall of the bowel, producing sacculations known as haustra.

Answer 552

The cecum is the first part of the large intestine. It is a blind-ended sac, continuous with the ascending colon.

Answer 553

The appendix is a narrow, blind ended tube attached to posteromedial end of the cecum.

Answer 554

Blood supply to the cecum is via the ileocolic artery (terminal branch of superior mesenteric).

Answer 555

When it meets the right lobe of the liver, the colon turns 90 degrees to the left. This turn is known as the right colic flexure.

Answer 556

The transverse colon crosses the abdomen, running from the right colic flexure to the spleen, where it turns another 90 degrees to point inferiorly. This turn is known as the left colic flexure (or splenic flexure).

Answer 557

The transverse colon is the least fixed part of the colon, and is therefore variable is position, and can dip into the pelvis in tall, thin people.

Answer 558

The marginal artery of the colon is a blood vessel that forms an important anastomosis between the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries.

Answer 559

It begins at the level of the S3 vertebrae.

Answer 560

It is retroperitoneal

Answer 561

In men, it is between the posterior wall of the bladder and the colon, called the recto-vesicle pouch.

Answer 562

In women, it is formed between the posterior wall of the uterus and the colon, and called the recto-uterine pouch (or pouch of Douglas)

Answer 563

It is a peritoneal organ, positioned in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, and is the largest visceral structure in the abdominal cavity.

Answer 564

Synthesis of bile, glycogen storage and clotting factor production.

Answer 565

It is smooth and convex, fitting snugly beneath the curvature of the diaphragm. A section of this surface is not covered by visceral peritoneum, known as the ‘bare area’ of the liver.

Answer 566

It is moulded by the shape of the surrounding organs, making it irregular and flat. It lies in contact with the oesophagus, right kidney, right adrenal gland, right colic flexure, duodenum, gallbladder and the stomach.

Answer 567

Falciform ligament; Coronary ligaments (left and right); Triangular ligaments (left and right); Lesser omentum

Answer 568

It attaches the anterior surface of the liver the anterior abdominal wall. The free edge of this ligament contains the ligamentum teres, a remnant of the umbilical vein.

Answer 569

They attach the superior surface of the liver to the diaphragm.

Answer 570

They attach the superior surface of the liver to the diaphragm.

Answer 571

Yellow - Left Red/brown - Right Blue - caudate Green - quadrate

Answer 572

Hepatic artery proper – supplies the liver with arterial blood. It is derived from the coeliac trunk; Hepatic portal vein – supplies the liver with deoxygenated blood, carrying nutrients absorbed from the small intestine.

Answer 573

The parenchyma of the liver is innervated by the hepatic plexus, which contains sympathetic (from the coeliac plexus) and parasympathetic (vagus nerve) nerve fibres.

Answer 574

Arterial supply to the gallbladder is via the cystic artery. This artery is derived from the hepatic artery proper, a branch of the common hepatic artery.

Answer 575

The celiac plexus carries sympathetic and sensory fibres, while the vagus nerve delivers parasympathetic innervation.

Answer 576

Parasympathetic stimulation produces contraction of the gallbladder, and the secretion of bile into the cystic duct. However, the main stimulator of bile secretion is cholcystokinin, which is secreted by the duodenum and travels in the blood.

Answer 577

The pancreas is an abdominal glandular organ, with an digestive(exocrine) and hormonal(endocrine) function.

Answer 578

Aside from the tail, it is a retroperitoneal (lies behind the peritoneal cavity) structure, located deep within the upper abdomen in the epigastrium and left hypochodrium regions.

Answer 579

Yellow - tail Orange - body Green - neck Purple - head Pink - uncinate process

Answer 580

The exocrine compartment is classified as a serous gland. It is composed of approximately a million ‘berry-like’ clusters of cells called acini, connected by short intercalated ducts.

Answer 581

Intercalated duct cells beginning within acini are called centroacinar cells. The intercalated ducts drain into a network of intralobular collecting ducts, which in turn drain into the main pancreatic duct.

Answer 582

The pancreatic duct runs the length of the pancreas and unites with the common bile duct, forming the hepatopancreatic ampulla of Vater. This structure opens into the duodenum.

Answer 583

The pancreas is supplied by the pancreatic branches of the splenic artery. The head is additionally supplied by the superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries which are branches of the gastroduodenal and superior mesenteric arteries, respectively.

Answer 584

The spleen in located in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen, under cover of the diaphragm and ribcage – and therefore cannot be palpated on clinical examination.

Answer 585

It is an intraperitoneal organ, entirely surrounded by peritoneum (except at the splenic hilum).

Answer 586

Gastrosplenic ligament – connects the spleen to the greater curvature of the stomach. Splenorenal ligament – connects the hilum of the spleen to the left kidney. The splenic vessels lie within this ligament

Answer 587

The spleen is a highly vascular organ. It receives its arterial supply from the splenic artery. This vessel arises from the coeliac trunk. It's branches do not anastomose so segements can be cut out.

Answer 588

The adrenal (or suprarenal) glands are paired retroperitoneal (lying posterior to the peritoneum) endocrine glands situated over the medial aspects of the upper poles of each kidney.

Answer 589

The adrenal glands consist of an outer connective tissue capsule, a cortex and a medulla. Veins and lymphatics leave each gland via the hilum, but arteries and nerves enter the glands at numerous sites.

Answer 590

The cortex is yellowish in colour. It consist of: Zona glomerulosa Zona fasciculata Zona reticularis

Answer 591

It secretes two cholesterol derived hormones – corticosteroids and androgens.

Answer 592

It produces and secretes mineralcorticoids such as aldosterone.

Answer 593

It produces and secretes corticosteroids such as cortisol. It also secretes a small amount of androgens.

Answer 594

It produces and secretes androgens such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHES). It also secretes a small amount of corticosteroids.

Answer 595

It contains chromaffin cells, which secrete catecholamines (such as adrenaline) into the bloodstream in response to stress. These hormones produce a ‘flight-or-fight‘ response.

Answer 596

The adrenal glands have a rich blood supply, which is supplied via three arteries: Superior adrenal artery; Middle adrenal artery; Inferior adrenal artery

Answer 597

The adrenal glands are innervated by the celiac plexus and abdominopelvic splanchnic nerves. Sympathetic innervation to the adrenal medulla is via myelinated pre-synaptic fibres, mainly from the T10 to L1 spinal cord segments.

Answer 598

The kidneys lie retroperitoneally (behind the peritoneum) in the abdomen, either side of the vertebral column.

Answer 599

The left and right kidneys are located at different vertebral levels: Left kidney: T11- L2. Right kidney: T12 – L3 (it is lower due to the presence of the liver).

Answer 600

Yellow - kidney Blue - renal capsule Green - perirenal fat Red - renal fascia Pink - pararenal fat

Answer 601

The kidneys are supplied with blood via the renal arteries, which arise directly from the abdominal aorta, immediately distal to the origin of the superior mesenteric artery.

Answer 602

It comes of the celieac trunk. It ascends across the diaphragm, giving rise to oesophageal branches, before continuing anteriorly along the lesser curvature of the stomach. Here, it anastomoses with the right gastric artery.

Answer 603

The splenic artery arises from the coeliac trunk just inferior to the left gastric artery. It then travels left towards the spleen, running posterior to the stomach and along the superior margin of the pancreas.

Answer 604

Left gastroepiploic: supplies the greater curvature of the stomach. Anastomoses with the right gastroepiploic artery. Short gastrics: 5-7 small branches supplying the fundus of the stomach. Pancreatic branches: supply the body and tail of the pancreas.

Answer 605

During its course, it is contained within the splenorenal ligament. It terminates into five branches which supply the segments of the spleen.

Answer 606

The common hepatic artery is the sole arterial supply to the liver and the only branch of the coeliac artery to pass to the right.

Answer 607

As it travels past the superior aspect of the duodenum, it divides into its two terminal branches – the proper hepatic and gastroduodenal arteries.

Answer 608

Right gastric: supplies the pylorus and lesser curvature of the stomach. Right and left hepatic: divide inferior to the porta hepatis and supply their respective lobes of the liver. Cystic: branch of the right hepatic artery – supplies the gall bladder.

Answer 609

Right gastroepiploic: supplies the greater curvature of the stomach. Found between the layers of the greater omentum, which it also supplies. Superior pancreaticoduodenal: divides into an anterior and posterior branch, which supplies the head of the pancreas.

Answer 610

The stomach is the only organ to receive arterial supply from all three branches of the coeliac trunk. This is achieved through a system of anastomoses along the greater (gastroepiploic arteries) and lesser (gastric arteries) curvatures.

Answer 611

The pancreaticoduodenal arcade is a network of arteries that surround and supply the head of the pancreas. There are two main arteries – each has an anterior and posterior branch, that anastomose (e.g. anterior to anterior) forming a ring structure

Answer 612

Superior pancreaticoduodenal– a branch of the gastroduodenal artery. Inferior pancreaticoduodenal – branch of superior mesenteric artery (SMA).

Answer 613

The inferior mesenteric artery is the third major branch of the abdominal aorta. It arises at L3, near the inferior border of the duodenum, 3-4 cm above where the aorta bifurcates into the common iliac arteries.

Answer 614

There are three major branches that arise from the IMA – the left colic artery, sigmoid artery and superior rectal artery.

Answer 615

Ascending branch – crosses the left kidney anteriorly, before entering the mesentry of the transverse colon, moving superiorly. It supplies the distal 1/3 of the transverse colon, and the upper aspect of the descending colon. Descending branch – moves inferiorly to supply the lower part of the descending colon. It anastamoses with the superior sigmoid artery.

Answer 616

It is a term used when an area has dual blood supply from the most distal branches of two large arteries. Whilst this has the advantage of being more resistant to ischaemia if one of the arteries becomes occluded, it makes the area more sensitive to systemic hypoperfusion.

Answer 617

The femoral canal is located in the anterior thigh, within the femoral triangle. It can be thought of as a rectangular shaped compartment.

Answer 618

Lymphatic vessels – draining the deep inguinal lymph nodes. Deep lymph node – the lacunar node. Empty space. Loose connective tissue.

Answer 619

The empty space allows distension of the adjacent femoral vein, so it can cope with increased venous return, or increased intra-abdominal pressure.

Answer 620

The popliteal fossa is a diamond shaped area found on the posterior side of the knee. It is the main path in which structures move from the thigh to the leg.

Answer 621

The popliteal fossa is the main conduit for neurovascular structures entering and leaving the leg. Its contents are (medial to lateral): Popliteal artery Popliteal vein Tibial nerve Common fibular nerve

Answer 622

The femur is the only bone in the thigh. It is classed as a long bone, and is in fact the longest bone in the body.

Answer 623

The main function of the femur is to transmit forces from the tibia to the hip joint.

Answer 624

The proximal area of the femur forms the hip joint with the pelvis. It consists of a head and neck, and two bony processes called trochanters. There are also two bony ridges connecting the two trochanters

Answer 625

Has a smooth surface with a depression on the medial surface – this is for the attachment of the ligament of the head. At the hip joint, it articulates with the acetabulum of the pelvis.

Answer 626

Connects the head of the femur with the shaft. It is cylindrical, projecting in a superior and medial direction – this angle of projection allows for an increased range of movement at the hip joint

Answer 627

It is angled superiorly and posteriorly, and can be found on both the anterior and posterior sides of the femur. It is the site of attachment of the abductor and lateral rotator muscles of the leg

Answer 628

It is much smaller than the greater trochanter. It projects from the posteromedial side of the side, just inferior to the neck-shaft junction. The psoas major and iliacus muscles attach here.

Answer 629

A ridge of bone that runs in a inferomedial direction on the anterior surface of the femur, connecting the two trochanters together. The iliofemoral ligament attaches here – a very strong ligament of the hip joint.

Answer 630

It similar to the intertrochanteric line. It is located on the posterior surface of the femur. There is a rounded tubercle on its superior half, this is called the quadrate tubercle, which is where the quadratus femoris attaches.

Answer 631

The shaft descends in a slight medial direction. This brings the knees closer to the body’s center of gravity, increasing stability.

Answer 632

On the posterior surface of the femoral shaft, there are roughened ridges of bone, these are called the linea aspera (Latin for rough line)

Answer 633

Proximally, the medial border of the linea aspera becomes the pectineal line. The lateral border becomes the gluteal tuberosity, where the gluteus maximus attaches.

Answer 634

Distally, the linea aspera widens and forms the floor of the popliteal fossa, the medial and lateral borders form the the medial and lateral supracondylar lines. The medial supracondyle line stops at the adductor tubercle, where the adductor magnus attaches.

Answer 635

Rounded areas at the end of the femur. The posterior and inferior surfaces articulate with the tibia and menisci of the knee, while the anterior surface articulates with the patella.

Answer 636

Bony elevations on the non articular areas of the condyles. They are the area of attachment of some muscles and the collateral ligaments of the knee joint.

Answer 637

A depression found on the posterior surface of the femur, it lies in between the two condyles. It contains two facets for attachment of internal knee ligaments.

Answer 638

There is a facet for attachment of the posterior cruciate ligament found on the medial wall of the intercondylar fossa, it is a large rounded flat face, where the posterior crucitate ligament of the knee attaches.

Answer 639

There is a facet for attachment of anterior cruciate ligament found on the lateral wall of the intercondylar fossa, it is smaller than the facet on the medial wall, and is where the anterior cruciate ligament of the knee attaches.

Answer 640

The right ventricle

Answer 641

The left atrium

Answer 642

The right and left ventricles

Answer 643

The right atrium

Answer 644

The left ventricle

Answer 645

The right atrium

Answer 646

The right and left ventricles

Answer 647

The left ventricle and some of the left atrium

Answer 648

The left and right atrium along with the great vessels

Answer 649

The coronary sinus runs transversely around the heart – it represents the wall dividing the atria from the ventricles. The sinus contains important vasculature, such as the right coronary artery.

Answer 650

The anterior and posterior interventricular sulci can be found running vertically on their respective sides of the heart. They represent the wall separating the ventricles.

Answer 651

The oblique pericardial sinus is a blind ending passageway (‘cul de sac’) located on the posterior surface of the heart.

Answer 652

The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior vena cava. It also receives drainage from the coronary veins via the coronary sinus. The atrium pumps this blood the right ventricle.

Answer 653

The interior surface of the right atrium can be divided into two parts, each with a distinct embryological origin. They are divided by a smooth muscular ridge, called the crista terminalis:

Answer 654

Posterior to the crista terminalis: This part receives blood from the vena cavae. It has smooth walls and is derived from the embryonic sinus venosus.

Answer 655

Anterior to the crista terminalis: This part is derived from the primitive atrium. Internally, it has muscular walls, formed by pectinate muscles. It also contains the right auricle.

Answer 656

Within the right atrium, the interatrial septum has a an oval shaped depression, called the fossa ovalis. It is the closed form of the foramen ovale, a valve present in the foetal heart.

Answer 657

The sinoatrial node is found in the crista terminalis, where the superior vena cava opens into the right atrium

Answer 658

The atrioventricular node can be located within the interventricular septum, near the opening of the coronary sinus.

Answer 659

These fibers are located in the subendocardial layer of ventricular walls

Answer 660

The heart wall itself can be divided into three distinct layers: the endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium.

Answer 661

Structurally, the endocardium is made up of loose connective tissue and simple squamous epithelial tissue – it is similar in its composition to the endothelium which lines the inside of blood vessels.

Answer 662

In addition to lining the inside of the heart, the endocardium also regulates contractions and aids cardiac embryological development.

Answer 663

The subendocardial layer lies between, and joins, the endocardium and the myocardium.

Answer 664

It consists of a layer of loose fibrous tissue, containing the vessels and nerves of the conducting system of the heart. The purkinje fibres are located in this layer.

Answer 665

The myocardium is comprised of cardiac muscle and is a striated involuntary muscle.

Answer 666

The myocardium is responsible for contractions of the heart.

Answer 667

The epicardium is the outermost layer of the heart, and a layer of the pericardium. It is comprised of connective tissue and fat.

Answer 668

The connective tissue secretes a small amount of lubricating fluid into the pericardial cavity.

Answer 669

Fixes the heart in the mediastinum and limits its motion; Prevents overfilling of the heart; Lubrication; Protection from infection

Answer 670

Continuous with the central tendon of the diaphragm, the fibrous pericardium is made of tough connective tissue and is relatively nondistensible.

Answer 671

The rigidity prevents rapid overfilling of the heart, but can have several serious clinical consequences.

Answer 672

The outer parietal layer which lines the internal surface of the fibrous pericardium and the internal visceral layer which forms the outer layer of the heart (also known as the epicardium).

Answer 673

This fluid serves to minimize the friction generated by the heart as it contracts and moves about within the thoracic cavity.

Answer 674

They are not closed by papillary muscles. Instead, the back-flow of blood collects in the cusps, pushing them together, and closing the valve.

Answer 675

The left coronary artery (LCA) initially branches to yield the left anterior descending (LAD) or anterior interventricular artery. The LCA then progresses to become the left marginal artery (LMA) and the left circumflex artery (Cx).

Answer 676

The right coronary artery (RCA) branches to form the right marginal artery (RMA) anteriorly and the posterior interventricular artery (PIv) posteriorly.

Answer 677

The right atrium and ventricle

Answer 678

The right and left ventricles and the interventricular septum

Answer 679

The left ventricle

Answer 680

The right ventricle and apex

Answer 681

The left atrium and ventricle

Answer 682

Both ventricles and the interventricular septum

Answer 683

The tibia is the main bone of the leg, forming what is more commonly known as the shin.

Answer 684

At the proximal end, the tibia is widened by the medial and lateral condyles, aiding in weight bearing.

Answer 685

The condyles form a flat surface, known as the tibial plateau. This structure articulates with the femoral condyles to form the major articulation of the knee joint.

Answer 686

Located between the condyles is a region called the intercondylar eminance – this consists of two tubercles and a roughened area.

Answer 687

This area is the main site of attachment for the ligaments and the menisci of the knee joint. The tibial intercondylar tubercles fit into the intercondylar fossa of the femur.

Answer 688

On the anterior surface of the proximal tibia, inferior to the condyles, the tibial tuberosity is situated. This is where the patella ligament attaches

Answer 689

The shaft of the tibia has three borders and three surfaces; anterior, posterior and lateral.

Answer 690

The start of the anterior border is marked by the tibial tuberosity. It is palpable down the anterior surface of the leg as the shin.

Answer 691

This is marked by a ridge of bone called the soleal line. It runs inferomedially, eventually blending with the medial border of the tibia.

Answer 692

Also known as the interosseous border. This gives attachment to the interosseous membrane that binds the tibia and the fibula together.

Answer 693

The distal end of the tibia, like the proximal, widens to help with weight bearing.

Answer 694

There is a bony projection continuing inferiorly on the medial side – this is called the medial malleolus. It articulates with the tarsal bones to form part of the ankle joint.

Answer 695

Laterally, on the distal end, there is a notch, where the fibula is bound to the tibia. It is known as the fibular notch.

Answer 696

The fibula is found laterally to the tibia, and is much thinner.

Answer 697

As it does not articulate with the femur at the knee joint, its main function is to act as an attachment for muscles, and not as a weight bearer.

Answer 698

At the proximal end, the fibula has a enlarged head, which contains a facet for articulation with the lateral condyle of the tibia.

Answer 699

On the posterior and lateral surface of the fibular neck, the common fibular nerve can be found.

Answer 700

Distally, the lateral surface continues inferiorly, and is called the lateral malleolus. The lateral malleolus is more prominent than the medial malleolus, and can be palpated at the ankle on the lateral side of the leg

Answer 701

Blue - tarsals (only 7) Red - metatarsals (5) Green - phalanges (each toe has 3, but the big toe has 2)

Answer 702

Purple - calcaneus Yellow - talus Blue - navicular Green - cuboid Red - cuneiforms

Answer 703

Fascia is defined as a sheet or band of fibrous tissue lying deep to the skin that lines, invests and separates structures within the body.

Answer 704

Superficial fascia: blends with the reticular layer beneath the dermis. Deep fascia: envelopes muscles, bones and neurovascular structures. Visceral fascia: provides membranous investments that suspend organs within their cavities.

Answer 705

The fascia lata is a deep fascial investment of the whole thigh musculature and is analogous to a strong, extensible and elasticated stocking

Answer 706

It begins most proximally around the iliac crest and inguinal ligament and ends most distally to the bony prominences of the tibia; where it continues to become the deep fascia of the leg (the crural fascia).

Answer 707

The width of the fascia lata varies considerably at different regions of the thigh.

Answer 708

It is thickest along the superolateral aspect of the thigh, originating from the fascial condensations from gluteus maximusand medius, and also from around the knee where the fascia receives reinforcing fibres from tendons.

Answer 709

The fascial investment is thinnest where it covers the adductor muscles of the medial thigh.

Answer 710

The deepest aspect of fascia lata gives rise to three intermuscular septa that attach centrally to the femur. This divides the thigh musculature into three compartments; anterior, medial and lateral.

Answer 711

The lateral intermuscular septum is the strongest of the three due to reinforcement from the iliotibial tract, whereas the other two septa are proportionately weaker.

Answer 712

This gap serves as an entry point for efferent lymphatic vessels and the great saphenous vein, draining into superficial inguinal lymph nodes and the femoral vein respectively.

Answer 713

The iliotibial tract is a longitudinal thickening of the fascia lata, which is strengthened posteriorly by fibres from the gluteus maximus.

Answer 714

It is located laterally in the thigh, extending from the iliac tubercle to the lateral tibial condyle.

Answer 715

Movement: acts as an extensor, abductor and lateral rotator of the hip, with an additional role in providing lateral stabilisation to the knee joint. Compartmentalisation: The deepest aspect of ITT extends centrally to form the lateral intermuscular septum of the thigh and attaches to the femur. Muscular sheath – forms a sheath for the tensor fascia lata muscle.

Answer 716

The tensor fascia lata is a gluteal muscle that acts as a flexor, abductor and internal rotator of the hip. Its nomenclature however, is devised from its additional role in tensing the fascia lata.

Answer 717

The muscle originates from the iliac crest, and descends down the superolateral thigh. At the junction of the middle and upper thirds of the thigh, it inserts into the anterior aspect of the iliotibial tract.

Answer 718

When stimulated, the tensor fasciae lata tautens the iliotibial band and braces the knee, especially when the opposite foot is lifted.

Answer 719

It forces muscle groups closer together within their intermuscular septa towards the femur. This action centralises muscle weight and limits outward expansion, which in turn reduces the overall force required for movement at the hip joint.

Answer 720

The fascia lata ends at the knee joint where it then becomes the deep fascia of the leg (the Crural fascia). Attachments are made at bony prominences around the knee including the femoral and tibial condyles, patella, head of fibula and the tibial tuberosity.

Answer 721

The gluteal region is an anatomical area located posteriorly to the pelvic girdle, at the proximal end of the femur. The muscles in this region move the lower limb at the hip joint.

Answer 722

A group of large muscles that abduct and extend the femur. It includes the gluteus maximus, gluteus medius and gluteus minimus.

Answer 723

A group of smaller muscles, that mainly act to laterally rotate the femur. It includes the quadratus femoris, piriformis, gemellus superior, gemellus inferior and obturator internus.

Answer 724

Originates from the gluteal (posterior) surface of the ilium, sacrum and coccyx. It slopes across the buttock at a 45 degree angle, then inserts into the iliotibial tract and greater trochanter of the femur.

Answer 725

It is the main extensor of the thigh, and assists with lateral rotation. However, it is only used when force is required, such as running or climbing.

Answer 726

Inferior gluteal nerve.

Answer 727

Originates from the gluteal surface of the ilium and inserts into the lateral surface of the greater trochanter.

Answer 728

Abducts and medially rotates the lower limb. During locomotion, it secures the pelvis, preventing pelvic drop of the opposite limb.

Answer 729

Superior gluteal nerve.

Answer 730

Originates from the ilium and converges to form a tendon, inserting to the anterior side of the greater trochanter.

Answer 731

Abducts and medially rotates the lower limb. During locomotion, it secures the pelvis, preventing pelvic drop of the opposite limb.

Answer 732

Superior gluteal nerve

Answer 733

Originates from the anterior surface of the sacrum. It then travels infero-laterally, through the greater sciatic foramen, to insert into the greater trochanter of the femur.

Answer 734

Lateral rotation and abduction.

Answer 735

Originates from the pubis and ischium at the obturator foramen. It travels through the lesser sciatic foramen, and attaches to the greater trochanter of the femur.

Answer 736

Lateral rotation and abduction.

Answer 737

The superior gemellus muscle originates from the ischial spine, the inferior from the ischial tuberosity. They both attach to the greater trochanter of the femur.

Answer 738

Lateral rotation and abduction.

Answer 739

The superior gemellus muscle is innervated by the nerve to obturator internus, the inferior gemellus is innervated by the nerve to quadratus femoris.

Answer 740

It originates from the lateral side of the ischial tuberosity, and attaches to the quadrate tuberosity on the intertrochanteric crest.

Answer 741

Lateral rotation.

Answer 742

Yellow - right coronary artery Purple - left anterior descending artery Green - right marginal artery Blue - left marginal artery Red - left circumflex artery

Answer 743

Red - left circumflex artery Green - right marginal artery Blue - left marginal artery Yellow - right coronary artery Dark patch - posterior interventricular artery

Answer 744

Yellow - stylopharyngeus Green - superior constrictor Orange - middle constrictor Blue - inferior constrictor

Answer 745

Red - left gastric artery Yellow - splenic artery Blue - common hepatic artery

Answer 746

Red - piriformis Blue - gemelli (superior and inferior) Green - obturator internus (cut) Yellow - quadratus femoris

Answer 747

The muscles in the anterior compartment of the thigh are innervated by the femoral nerve (L2-L4), and as a general rule, act to extend the leg at the knee joint.

Answer 748

There are three major muscles in the anterior thigh – the pectineus, sartorius and quadriceps femoris. In addition to these, the end of the iliopsoas muscle passes into the anterior compartment.

Answer 749

The iliopsoas is actually two muscles, the psoas major and the iliacus. They originate in different areas, but come together to form a tendon, hence why they are commonly referred to as one muscle.

Answer 750

The psoas major originates from the lumbar vertebrae, and the iliacus originates from the iliac fossa of the pelvis. They insert together onto the lesser trochanter of the femur.

Answer 751

The iliopsoas flexes the lower limb at the hip joint and assists in lateral rotation at the hip joint.

Answer 752

The psoas major is innervated by anterior rami of L1-3, while the iliacus is innervated by the femoral nerve.

Answer 753

The quadriceps femoris consists of four individual muscles; three vastus muscles and the rectus femoris. They form the main bulk of the thigh, and collectively are one of the most powerful muscles in the body.

Answer 754

There are three vastus muscles – vastus medialis, vastus intermedius and vastus lateralis.

Answer 755

Collectively, the vastus muscles extend at the knee joint, and are innervated by the femoral nerve.

Answer 756

Originates from the ilium, just superior to the acetabulum. It runs straight down the leg (the latin for straight is rectus), and attaches to the patella by the quadriceps femoris tendon.

Answer 757

This is the only muscle of the quadriceps to cross both the hip and knee joints. It flexes the leg at the hip joint, and extends at the knee joint.

Answer 758

Femoral nerve.

Answer 759

Originates from the anterior superior iliac spine, and attaches to the superior, medial surface of the tibia.

Answer 760

At the hip joint, it is a flexor, abductor and lateral rotator. At the knee joint, it is also a flexor.

Answer 761

Femoral nerve.

Answer 762

It originates from the pectineal line on the anterior surface of the pelvis, and attaches to the pectineal line on the posterior side of the femur, just inferior to the lesser trochanter.

Answer 763

Adduction and flexion at the hip joint.

Answer 764

Femoral nerve.

Answer 765

Hip adductors. There are five muscles in this group; gracilis, obturator externus, adductor brevis, adductor longus and adductor magnus.

Answer 766

All the medial thigh muscles are innervated by the obturator nerve, which arises from the lumbar plexus. Arterial supply is via the obturator artery.

Answer 767

The adductor part originates from the inferior rami of pubis and the rami of ischium, attaching to the linea aspera of the femur. The hamstring portion originates from the ischial tuberosity and attaches to the adductor tubercle on the distal and medial side of the femur.

Answer 768

They both adduct the thigh. The adductor component also flexes the thigh, with the hamstring portion extending the thigh.

Answer 769

Adductor part is innervated by the obturator nerve (L2-L4), the hamstring part is innervated by the tibial nerve (L4-S3).

Answer 770

Originates from the pubis, and expands into a fan shape, attaching broadly to the linea aspera of the femur

Answer 771

Adduction and medial rotation of the thigh.

Answer 772

Obturator nerve (L2-L4).

Answer 773

Originates from the body of pubis and inferior pubic rami. It attaches to the linea aspera on the posterior surface of the femur, proximal to the adductor longus.

Answer 774

Adduction of the thigh.

Answer 775

Obturator nerve (L2-L4).

Answer 776

It originates from the membrane of the obturator foramen, and adjacent bone. It passes under the neck of femur, attaching to the posterior aspect of the greater trochanter.

Answer 777

Laterally rotates the thigh.

Answer 778

Obturator nerve (L2-L4)

Answer 779

It originates from the inferior rami of the pubis, and the body of the pubis. Descending almost vertically down the leg, it attaches to the medial surface of the tibia, inbetween the tendons of the sartorius (anteriorly) and the semitendinosus (posteriorly).

Answer 780

Adduction of the thigh at the hip, and flexion of the leg at the knee.

Answer 781

Obturator nerve (L2-L4)

Answer 782

The muscles in the posterior compartment of the thigh are collectively known as the hamstrings. They consist of the biceps femoris, semitendinosus and semimembranosus – as a group they act to extend at the hip, and flex at the knee.

Answer 783

They are innervated by the sciatic nerve (L4-S3) as it descends through the thigh.

Answer 784

The long head originates from the ischial tuberosity of the pelvis. The short head originates from the linea aspera on posterior surface of the femur. Together, the heads form a tendon, which inserts into the head of the fibula.

Answer 785

Main action is flexion at the knee. It also extends the leg at the hip, and laterally rotates at the hip and knee.

Answer 786

Long head innervated by the tibial part of the sciatic nerve, whereas the short head is innervated by the common fibular part of the sciatic nerve.

Answer 787

It originates from the ischial tuberosity of the pelvis, and attaches to the medial surface of the tibia.

Answer 788

Flexion of the leg at the knee joint. Extension of thigh at the hip. Medially rotates the thigh at the hip joint and the leg at the knee joint.

Answer 789

Tibial part of the sciatic nerve

Answer 790

It originates from the ischial tuberosity, but does so more superiorly than the semitendinosus and biceps femoris. It attaches to the medial tibial condyle.

Answer 791

Flexion of the leg at the knee joint. Extension of thigh at the hip. Medially rotates the thigh at the hip joint and the leg at the knee joint.

Answer 792

Tibial part of the sciatic nerve.

Answer 793

There are four muscles in the anterior compartment of the leg; tibialis anterior, extensor digitorun longus, extensor hallucis longus and fibularis tertius.

Answer 794

Collectively, they act to dorsiflex and invert the foot at the ankle joint. The extensor digitorum longus and extensor hallucis longus also extend the toes

Answer 795

The muscles in this compartment are innervated by the deep fibular nerve (L4-L5), and blood is supplied via the anterior tibial artery.

Answer 796

Originates from the lateral surface of the tibia, attaches to the medial cuneiform and the base of metatarsal I.

Answer 797

Dorsiflexion and inversion of the foot.

Answer 798

Deep fibular nerve.

Answer 799

Originates from the lateral condyle of the tibia and the medial surface of the fibula. The fibres converge into a tendon, which travels to the dorsal surface of the foot. The tendon splits into four, each inserting onto a toe.

Answer 800

Extension of the lateral four toes, and dorsiflexion of the foot.

Answer 801

Deep fibular nerve.

Answer 802

Originates from the medial surface of the fibular shaft. The tendon crosses anterior to the ankle joint and attaches to the base of the distal phalanx of the great toe.

Answer 803

Extension of the great toe and dorsiflexion of the foot.

Answer 804

Deep fibular nerve.

Answer 805

Originates with the extensor digitorum longus from the medial surface of the fibula. The tendon descends with the EDL, until they reach the dorsal surface of the foot. The fibularis tertius tendon then diverges and attaches to metatarsal V.

Answer 806

Eversion and dorsiflexion of the foot.

Answer 807

Deep fibular nerve

Answer 808

The fibularis longus originates from the superior and lateral surface of the fibula and the lateral tibial condyle. The fibres converge into a tendon, which the descends into the foot, posterior to the lateral malleolus. The tendon then crosses under the foot, and attaches to the bones on the medial side, namely the medial cuneiform and base of metatarsal I.

Answer 809

Eversion and plantarflexion of the foot. Also supports the lateral and tranverse arches of the foot.

Answer 810

Superficial fibular (peroneal) nerve, L4-S1.

Answer 811

It originates from the inferior and lateral surface of the fibular shaft. The muscle belly forms a tendon, which descends with the fibularis longus tendon. It travels into the foot, posterior to the lateral malleolus, passing over the calcaneus and the cuboidal bones. The tendon of the fibularis brevis attaches to a tubercle on metatarsal V.

Answer 812

Eversion of the foot.

Answer 813

Superficial fibular (peroneal) nerve, L4-S1

Answer 814

Collectively, the muscles in this area plantarflex and invert the foot.

Answer 815

They are innervated by the tibial nerve, a terminal branch of the sciatic nerve.

Answer 816

They all insert into the calcaneus of the foot (the heel bone), via the calcaneal tendon.

Answer 817

The lateral head originates from the lateral femoral condyle, and medial from the medial condyle. The fibres converge, and form a single muscle belly. In the lower part of the leg, the muscle belly combines with the soleus to from the calcaneal tendon, with inserts onto the calcaneus (the heel bone).

Answer 818

It plantarflexes at the ankle joint, and because it crosses the knee, it is a flexor there.

Answer 819

Tibial nerve.

Answer 820

Originates from the lateral supracondylar line of the femur. The muscle descends medially, condensing into a tendon that runs down the leg, between the gastrocnemius and soleus. The tendon blends with the calcaneal tendon.

Answer 821

It plantarflexes at the ankle joint, and because it crosses the knee, it is a flexor there. It is not a vital muscle for these movements.

Answer 822

Tibial nerve

Answer 823

Originates from the soleal line of the tibia and proximal fibular area. The muscle narrows in the lower part of the leg, and joins the calcaneal tendon.

Answer 824

Plantarflexes the foot at the ankle joint.

Answer 825

Tibial Nerve

Answer 826

One muscle, the popliteus, acts only on the knee joint. The remaining three muscles (tibialis posterior, flexor hallucis longus and flexor digitorum longus) act on the ankle and foot.

Answer 827

Originates from the posterior surface of the tibia, attaches to the lateral condyle of the femur.

Answer 828

Laterally rotates the femur on the tibia – ‘unlocking’ the joint so that flexion at the knee joint can occur.

Answer 829

Tibial nerve.

Answer 830

Originates from the interosseous membrane between the tibia and fibula, and posterior surfaces of the two bones. The tendon enters the foot posterior to the medial malleolus, and attaches to the plantar surfaces of the medial tarsal bones.

Answer 831

Inverts and plantarflexes the foot, maintains the medial arch of the foot.

Answer 832

Tibial nerve.

Answer 833

Originates from the medial surface of the tibia, attaches to the plantar surfaces of the lateral four digits.

Answer 834

Flexes the lateral four toes.

Answer 835

Tibial nerve.

Answer 836

Originates from the posterior surface of the fibula, attaches to the plantar surface of the phalanx of the great toe.

Answer 837

Flexes the great toe

Answer 838

Tibial nerve.

Answer 839

Originates from the calcaneus, the interosseus talocalcaneal ligament and the inferior extensor retinaculum. It attaches to the long extensor tendons of the four medial digits.

Answer 840

Aids the extensor digitorum longus in extending the medial four toes at the metatarsophalangeal and interphalangeal joints.

Answer 841

Deep fibular nerve.

Answer 842

Originates from the calcaneus, the interosseus talocalcaneal ligament and the inferior extensor retinaculum. It attaches to the base of the proximal phalanx of the great toe.

Answer 843

Aids the extensor hallucis longus in extending the great toe at the metatarsophalangeal joint.

Answer 844

Deep fibular nerve.

Answer 845

Originates from the medial tubercle of the calcaneus and the plantar aponeurosis. It attaches to the middle phalanges of the lateral four digits.

Answer 846

Flexes the lateral four digits at the proximal interphalangeal joints.

Answer 847

Medial plantar nerve.

Answer 848

Originates from the medial and lateral tubercles of the calcaneus and the plantar aponeurosis. It attaches to the lateral base of the proximal phalanx of the 5th digit.

Answer 849

Abducts and flexes the 5th digit.

Answer 850

Lateral plantar nerve.

Answer 851

Originates from the medial tubercle of the calcaneus, the flexor retinaculum and the plantar aponeurosis. It attaches to the medial base of the proximal phalanx of the great toe.

Answer 852

Abducts and flexes the great toe.

Answer 853

Medial plantar nerve.

Answer 854

Originates from the medial and lateral plantar surface of the calcaneus. It attaches to the tendons of flexor digitorum longus.

Answer 855

Assists flexor digitorum longus in flexing the lateral four digits.

Answer 856

Lateral plantar nerve.

Answer 857

Originates from the tendons of flexor digitorum longus. Attaches to the extensor hoods of the lateral four digits.

Answer 858

Flexes at the metatarsophalangeal joints, while extending the interphalangeal joints.

Answer 859

The most medial lumbrical is innervated by the medial plantar nerve. The remaining three are innervated by the lateral plantar nerve.

Answer 860

Originates from the plantar surfaces of the cuboid and lateral cuneiforms, and from the tendon of the posterior tibialis tendon. Attaches to the base of the proximal phalanx of the great toe.

Answer 861

Flexes the proximal phalanx of the great toe at the metatarsophalangeal joint.

Answer 862

Medial plantar nerve

Answer 863

The oblique head originates from the bases of the first four metatarsals. The transverse head originates from the plantar ligaments of the metatarsophalangeal joints. Both heads attach to the lateral base of the proximal phalanx of the great toe.

Answer 864

Adduct the great toe. Assists in forming the transverse arch of the foot.

Answer 865

Deep branch of lateral plantar nerve.

Answer 866

Originates from the base of the fifth metatarsal. Attaches to the base of the proximal phalanx of the fifth digit.

Answer 867

Flexes the proximal phalanx of the fifth digit.

Answer 868

Superficial branch of lateral plantar nerve

Answer 869

The anterior rami of L1-L4

Answer 870

T12 and L1

Answer 871

Innervates the internal oblique and transversus abdominis.

Answer 872

Innervates the posterolateral gluteal skin in the pubic region.

Answer 873

Innervates the internal oblique and transversus abdominis.

Answer 874

Innervates the skin on the upper middle thigh. In males, it also supplies the skin over the root of the penis and anterior scrotum. In females, it supplies the skin over mons pubis and labium majus.

Answer 875

The Genital branch innervates the cremasteric muscle.

Answer 876

The Genital branch innervates the skin of the anterior scrotum (in males) or the skin over mons pubis and labium majus (in females). The Femoral branch innervates the skin on the upper anterior thigh.

Answer 877

It has no motor function. Sensory wise it innervates the anterior and lateral thigh down to the level of the knee.

Answer 878

L2, L3, and L4

Answer 879

It innervates the muscles: obturator externus, pectineus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, adductor magnus, gracilis.

Answer 880

Innervates the skin over the medial thigh.

Answer 881

L2, L3 and L4

Answer 882

Innervates the muscles: Illiacus, pectineus, sartorius, all the muscles of quadriceps femoris.

Answer 883

Innervates the skin on the anterior thigh and the medial leg.

Answer 884

The anterior rami of L4, L5, S1, S2, S3 and S4

Answer 885

They either: Leave the pelvis via the greater sciatic foramen – these nerves enter the gluteal region of the lower limb, innervating the structures there. Remain in the pelvis – these nerves innervate the pelvic muscles, organs and perineum.

Answer 886

‘Some Irish Sailor Pesters Polly’. This stands for Superior Gluteal, Inferior Gluteal, Sciatic, Posterior cutaneous nerve of thigh, Pudendal.

Answer 887

L4, L5 and S1

Answer 888

Innervates the gluteus minimus, gluteus medius and tensor fascia latae. It has no sensory function.

Answer 889

L5, S1 and S2

Answer 890

Innervates gluteus maximus. It has no sensory function

Answer 891

L4, L5, S1, S2 and S3

Answer 892

Tibial Portion – Innervates all of the muscles in the posterior compartment of the thigh, apart from the short head of the biceps femoris. All muscles in the posterior compartment of the leg. All muscles in the sole of the foot. Common Fibular Portion – Short head of biceps femoris, all muscles in the anterior and lateral compartments of the leg and extensor digitorum brevis.

Answer 893

Tibial Portion: Innervates the skin on the posterolateral and medial surfaces of the foot as well as the sole of the foot. Common Fibular Portion: Innervates the skin on the anterolateral surface of the leg and the dorsal aspect of the foot.

Answer 894

S1, S2 and S3

Answer 895

Innervates the skin on the posterior surface of the thigh and leg. Also innervates the skin of the perineum. It has no motor functions

Answer 896

S2, S3 and S4

Answer 897

Innervates the skeletal muscles in the perineum, the external urethral sphincter, the external anal sphincter, levator ani. (S2, S3, S4 keeps poo off the floor!)

Answer 898

Innervates the penis and the clitoris and most of the skin of the perineum.

Answer 899

The main artery of the lower limb is femoral artery.

Answer 900

It is a continuation of the external iliac artery (terminal branch of the abdominal aorta). The external iliac becomes the femoral artery when it crosses under the inguinal ligament and enters the femoral triangle.

Answer 901

In the femoral triangle, the profunda femoris artery arises from the posterolateral aspect of the femoral artery. It travels posteriorly and distally, giving off three main branches

Answer 902

Lateral femoral circumflex artery – Wraps round the anterior, lateral side of the femur, supplying some of the muscles in the lateral side of the thigh. Medial femoral circumflex artery – Wraps round the posterior side of the femur, supplying the neck and head of the femur.

Answer 903

After exiting the femoral triangle, the femoral artery continues down the anterior surface of the thigh, via a tunnel known as the adductor canal. During its descent the artery supplies the anterior thigh muscles.

Answer 904

The adductor canal ends at an opening in the adductor magnus, called the adductor hiatus. The femoral artery moves through this opening, and enters the posterior compartment of the thigh, proximal to the knee.

Answer 905

The gluteal region is largely supplied by the superior and inferior gluteal arteries. These arteries also arise from the internal iliac artery, entering the gluteal region via the greater sciatic foramen.

Answer 906

The popliteal artery (femoral artery) descends down the posterior thigh, giving off genicular branches that supply the knee joint.

Answer 907

It moves through the popliteal fossa, exiting sandwiched between the gastrocnemius and popliteus muscles. At the lower border of the popliteus, the popliteal artery terminates by dividing into anterior and posterior tibial arteries.

Answer 908

The posterior tibial artery continues inferiorly, along the surface of the deep muscles (such as tibialis posterior). It accompanies the tibial nerve in entering the sole of the foot via thetarsal tunnel.

Answer 909

During the descent of the posterior tibial artery in the leg, the fibular artery arises. This artery moves laterally, penetrating the lateral compartment of the leg. It supplies muscles in the lateral compartment, and adjacent muscles in the posterior compartment.

Answer 910

The anterior tibial artery passes anteriorly between the tibia and fibula, through a gap in the interosseous membrane. It then moves inferiorly down the leg.

Answer 911

It runs down the entire length of the leg, and into the foot, where it becomes the dorsalis pedis artery.

Answer 912

Arterial supply to the foot is delivered via two arteries: ``` Dorsalis pedis (a continuation of the anterior tibial artery) Posterior tibial ```

Answer 913

The hip joint consists of an articulation between thehead of femur and acetabulum of the pelvis.

Answer 914

A cup-like depression in the lateral side of the pelvis (much like the glenoid fossa of the scapula).

Answer 915

It is a relatively small ligament that runs from the acetabular fossa to the fovea of the femur. It encloses a branch of the oburator artery, which comprises a small proportion of the hip joint blood.

Answer 916

It originates from the ilium, immediately inferior to the anterior inferior iliac spine. The ligament attaches to the intertrochanteric line in two places, giving the ligament a Y shaped appearance.

Answer 917

It prevents hyperextension of the hip joint.

Answer 918

Located anteriorly and inferiorly. It attaches at the pelvis to the iliopubic eminance and obturator membrane, and then blends with the articular capsule.

Answer 919

It prevents excessive abduction and extension.

Answer 920

Located posteriorly. It originates from the ischium of the pelvis and attaches to the greater trochanter of the femur.

Answer 921

It prevents excessive extension of the femur at the hip joint.

Answer 922

Vascular supply to the hip joint is achieved via the medial and lateral circumflex femoral arteries, and the artery to head of femur.

Answer 923

The hip joint is innervated by the femoral nerve, obturator nerve, superior gluteal nerve, and nerve to quadratus femoris.

Answer 924

It is deep, and encompasses nearly all of the head of the femur. This decreases the probability of the head slipping out of the acetabulum, and causing a dislocation.

Answer 925

It is a fibrocartilaginous collar around the acetabulum which increases its depth. The increase is depth provides a large articular surface , thus improving the stability of the joint.

Answer 926

flexion, extension, abduction, adduction and medial/lateral rotation.

Answer 927

It is hinge type synovial joint, which mainly allows for flexion and extension (and a small degree of medial and lateral rotation).

Answer 928

It is formed by articulations between the patella, femur and tibia.

Answer 929

The shape of the knee joint means that it is relatively weak, and so it relies on muscles and ligaments to ensure stability.

Answer 930

Tibiofemoral – The medial and lateral condyles of the femur articulating with the tibia. Patellofemoral – The anterior and distal part of the femur articulating with the patella.

Answer 931

The tibiofemoral joint is the weightbearing joint of the knee.

Answer 932

The patellofemoral joint allows the tendon of the quadriceps femoris (the main extensor of the knee) to be inserted directly over the knee, increasing the efficiency of the muscle.

Answer 933

The patella is formed inside the tendon of the quadriceps femoris; its presence minimises wear and tear on the tendon.

Answer 934

The medial and lateral menisci are fibrocartilage structures in the knee. They are C shaped, and attached at both ends to the intercondylar area of the the tibia

Answer 935

(1) To deepen the articular surface of the tibia, thus increasing stability of the joint. (2) To act as shock absorpers.

Answer 936

In addition to the intercondylar attachment, the medial meniscus is fixed to the tibial collateral ligament and the joint capsule.

Answer 937

Trick question! The lateral meniscus is smaller and does not have any extra attachments, rendering it fairly mobile.

Answer 938

A bursa is synovial fluid filled sac, found between moving structures in a joint – with the aim of reducing wear and tear on those structures.

Answer 939

4: Suprapatella bursa Prepatella bursa Infrapatella bursa Semimembranosus bursa

Answer 940

This is an extension of the synovial cavity of the knee, located between the quadriceps femoris and the femur.

Answer 941

Found between the apex of the patella and the skin

Answer 942

Split into deep and superficial. The deep bursa lies between the tibia and the patella liagment. The superficia lies between the patella ligament and the skin.

Answer 943

Located posteriorly in the knee joint, between the the semimembranosus muscle and the medial head of the gastrocnemius.

Answer 944

1. Patellar ligament 2. Collateral ligaments (Tibial (medial) collateral ligament and Fibular (lateral) collateral ligament) 3. Cruciate Ligaments (Anterior cruciate ligament and Posterior cruciate ligament)

Answer 945

A continuation of the quadriceps femoris tendon distal to the patella. It attaches to the tibial tuberosity. It is the green ligament in the picture

Answer 946

These are two strap-like ligaments. They act to stablise the hinge motion of the knee, preventing any medial or lateral movement. They are the red ligaments in the picture

Answer 947

These two ligament connect the femur and the tibia. In doing so, they cross each other, hence the term ‘cruciate’ (latin for like a cross). The blue ligaments in the picture

Answer 948

Produced by the quadriceps femoris, which inserts into the tibial tuberosity.

Answer 949

Produced by the hamstrings, gracilis, sartorius and popliteus.

Answer 950

Produced by the biceps femoris.

Answer 951

Produced by five muscles; semimembranosus, semitendinosus, gracilis, sartorius and popliteus.

Answer 952

The ankle joint is formed by three bones; the tibia and fibula of the leg, and the talus of the foot:

Answer 953

The tibia and fibula are bound together by strong tibiofibular ligaments, producing a bracket shaped socket, which is covered in hyaline cartilage. This socket is known as a mortise.

Answer 954

The body of the talus fits snugly into the mortise formed by the bones of the leg.

Answer 955

During dorsiflexion, the anterior part of the bone is held in the mortise, and the joint is more stable (vice versa for plantarflexion).

Answer 956

There are two sets of ligaments, which originate from each malleolus.

Answer 957

The medial ligament (or deltoid ligament) is attached to the medial malleolus. It consists of four separate ligaments, which fan out from the malleolus, attaching to the talus, calcaneus and navicular bones.

Answer 958

The primary action of the medial ligament is to resist over-eversion of the foot.

Answer 959

The lateral ligament originates from the lateral malleolus.

Answer 960

It resists over-inversion of the foot.

Answer 961

It is comprised of three distinct and separate ligaments: Anterior talofibular; Posterior talofibular; Calcaneofibular

Answer 962

Spans between the lateral malleolus and lateral aspect of the talus.

Answer 963

Spans between the lateral malleolus and the posterior aspect of the talus.

Answer 964

Spans between the lateral malleolus and the calcaneus.

Answer 965

The perineum is an anatomical region located in the pelvis. It is the most inferior part of the pelvic outlet, located between the thighs. It is separated from the pelvic cavity superiorly by the pelvic floor.

Answer 966

Functionally, the perineum contains structures that support the urinary, genital and gastrointestinal viscera. They play a vital role in micturition, defectation, sexual intercourse and childbirth.

Answer 967

Anatomically - pubic symphysis Structurally - Mons pubis in females, base of the penis in males.

Answer 968

Anatomically - Inferior pubic rami and inferior ischial rami, and the sacrotuberous ligament. Surface border - Medial surfaces of the thighs

Answer 969

Surface border - Superior end of the intergluteal cleft. Anatomically - the tip of the coccyx

Answer 970

Roof – The pelvic floor. Base – Skin and fascia.

Answer 971

The perineum can be subdivided by a theoretical line drawn transversely between the ischial tuberosities. This split forms the anterior urogenital and posterior anal triangles.

Answer 972

The anal triangle is the posterior half of the perineum. It is bounded by the coccyx, sacrotuberous ligaments and an imaginary line between the ischial tuberosities.

Answer 973

Anal aperture – the opening of the anus. External anal sphincter muscle – voluntary muscle responsible for opening and closing the anus Two ischioanal fossae – spaces located laterally to the anus.

Answer 974

These fossae contain fat and connective tissue, which aid expansion of the anal canal during defecation.

Answer 975

The urogenital triangle comprises of the anterior half of the perineum. It is bounded by the pubic symphysis, ischiopubic rami, and an imaginary line between the two ischial tuberosities.

Answer 976

Unlike the anal triangle, the urogenital triangle has an additional layer of strong deep fascia, known as the perineal membrane.

Answer 977

A layer of tough fascia, which is perforated by the urethra and vagina.

Answer 978

The role of the membrane is to provide attachment for the muscles of the superficial external genitalia, and to help support the pelvic viscera.

Answer 979

A potential space between the perineal membrane superiorly, and the perineal fascia inferiorly.

Answer 980

It contains the erectile tissues that form the penis and clitoris, and three muscles – the ischiocavernosus, bulbospongiosus and superficial transverse perineal muscles.

Answer 981

The greater vestibular glands (Bartholin’s glands) are located in the superficial perineal pouch.

Answer 982

Fascia covering the superficial perineal muscles.

Answer 983

It is continuous with the superficial fascia of the abdominal wall.

Answer 984

The superficial fascia itself can be divided into superficial and deep layers. The superficial layer is fatty in structure, forming the labia majora and mons pubis in women.

Answer 985

It is located at the junction of the urogenital and anal triangles – the central point of the perineum.

Answer 986

This structure contains skeletal muscle, smooth muscle and collagenous and elastic fibres.

Answer 987

Levator ani (part of the pelvic floor). Bulbospongiosus muscle. Superficial and deep transverse perineal muscles. External anal sphincter muscle. External urethral sphincter muscle fibres.

Answer 988

The major neurovasculature supply to the perineum is from the pudendal nerve (S2 to S4) and the internal pudendal artery.

Answer 989

Hip bone: Sacroiliac joint – articulation with sacrum. Pubic symphysis – articulation with the corresponding hip bone. Hip joint – articulation with the head of femur.

Answer 990

The hip bone is made up of the three parts – the ilium, pubis and ischium.

Answer 991

The inner surface of the ilium is concave, and known as the iliac fossa, providing origin to the iliacus muscle.

Answer 992

The superior margin of the iliac wing is thickened, forming the iliac crest. It extends from the anterior superior iliac spine to the posterior superior iliac spine.

Answer 993

Gluteal muscles attach to the external surface of the Ilium at the anterior, posterior and inferior gluteal lines. The iliacus muscle attaches medially at the iliac fossa.

Answer 994

The pubis is the most anterior portion of the hip bone. It consists of a body and superior and inferior rami (branches).

Answer 995

The body of the pubic bone is located medially, articulating with its opposite pubic body, at the pubic symphysis.

Answer 996

The superior rami extends laterally from the body, forming part of the acetabulum.

Answer 997

Together, the two pubic rami enclose part of the obturator foramen, through which the obturator nerve, artery and vein pass through to reach the lower limb.

Answer 998

The posterioinferior part of the hip bone is formed by the ischium.

Answer 999

It connects the axial skeleton to the lower limbs.

Answer 1000

The bony pelvis consists of the two hip bones (also known as innominate or pelvic bones), sacrum and coccyx.

Answer 1001

Sacroiliac Joints (x2) – Between the ilium of the hip bones, and the sacrum Sacrococcygeal symphysis – Between the sacrum and the coccyx. Pubic symphysis – Between the pubis bodies of the two hip bones.

Answer 1002

Transfer of weight from the upper axial sketeton to the lower appendicular components of the skeleton, especially during movement. Provides attachment for a number of muscles and ligaments used in locomotion. Contains and protects the abdominopelvic and pelvic visera.

Answer 1003

The superior portion of the pelvis is known as the greater pelvis (or false pelvis). It provides support for the lower abdominal viscera (ileum and sigmoid colon), and has no obstetric relevance.

Answer 1004

The inferior portion of the pelvis is known as the lesser pelvis (or “true” pelvis). Within which resides the pelvic cavity and pelvic viscera.

Answer 1005

The pelvic inlet marks the boundary between the greater pelvis and lesser pelvis. (the inside of the pelvic hole)

Answer 1006

The pelvic outlet is located at the end of the lesser pelvis, and the beginning of the pelvic wall. (the outside of the pelvic hole)

Answer 1007

It is remarkably thick, which aids in supporting and transmitting the weight of the body.

Answer 1008

The sacrum is formed by the fusion of the five sacral vertebrae. It has an inverted triangular, concave shape.

Answer 1009

There are two surfaces of the sacrum – a coarse dorsal surface and a relatively smooth pelvic surface.

Answer 1010

The dorsal surface of the sacrum is coarse and rugged. This can be attributed to the fusionof the sacral vertebrae, which give rise to three bony ridges (or crests).

Answer 1011

The pelvic viscera, (bladder, rectum, pelvic genital organs and terminal part of the urethra) reside within the pelvic cavity (or the true pelvis). This cavity is located within the lesser part of the pelvis, beneath the pelvic brim (see here for more information).

Answer 1012

The pelvic floor is a funnel-shaped musculature structure. It attaches to the walls of the lesser pelvis, separating the pelvic cavity from the inferior perineum (region which includes the genitalia and anus).

Answer 1013

The urogenital hiatus – An anteriorly situated gap, which allows passage of the urethra (and the vagina in females). The rectal hiatus – A centrally positioned gap, which allows passage of the anal canal.

Answer 1014

Support of abdominopelvic viscera (bladder, intestines, uterus etc.) through their tonic contraction. Resistance to increase in intra-pelvic/abdominal pressure during activities such as coughing or lifting heavy objects. Urinary and fecal continence. The muscle fibers have a sphincter action on the rectum and urethra. They relax to allow urination and defecation.

Answer 1015

Levator ani muscles (largest component). Coccygeus muscle. Fascia coverings of the muscles.

Answer 1016

Innervated by branches of the pudendal nerve, roots S2, S3 and S4.

Answer 1017

The levator ani is a broad sheet of muscle. It is composed of three separate paired muscles, called the pubococcygeus, puborectalis and iliococcygeus.

Answer 1018

Innervated by the anterior rami of S4 and S5.

Answer 1019

The ureteric walls are comprised of smooth muscle, which contracts to produce peristaltic waves. This propels the urine towards the bladder.

Answer 1020

The ureters arise in the abdomen as a continuation of the renal pelvis. They terminate in the pelvic cavity, where they drain into the bladder.

Answer 1021

The renal pelvis receives urine from the major calyces.

Answer 1022

The point at which the renal pelvis narrows to form the ureter is known as the ureteropelvic junction.

Answer 1023

Upon reaching the bladder wall, the ureters pierce its lateral aspect in an oblique manner. This creates a one way valve, where high intramural pressure collapses the ureters, preventing the back-flow of urine.

Answer 1024

Abdominal: Renal artery and testicular/ovarian artery. Pelvic: Superior and inferior vesical arteries.

Answer 1025

The main function of the bladder is the collection, temporary storage, and expulsion of urine.

Answer 1026

Embryologically, the bladder is derived from the hindgut.

Answer 1027

The important external features are the apex, body, fundus and neck:

Answer 1028

In contrast to the rest of the internal bladder, the trigone has smooth walls.

Answer 1029

There are two sphincters controlling the outflow of urine; the internal and external urethral sphincters. The internal urethral sphincter is only present in men.

Answer 1030

Its fibres are orientated in three directions, thus retaining structural integrity when stretched.

Answer 1031

It receives innervation from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

Answer 1032

The internal urethral sphincter is located in males only. It consists of circular smooth fibres, which are under autonomic control. It is thought to prevent seminal regurgitation during ejaculation.

Answer 1033

The external urethral sphincter is present in both sexes. It is skeletal muscle, and under voluntary control. During micturition, it relaxes to allow urine flow.

Answer 1034

Arterial supply is delivered by the superior vesical branch of the internal iliac artery.

Answer 1035

The sympathetic nervous system communicates with the bladder via the hypogastric nerve (T12 – L2).

Answer 1036

It causes relaxation of the detrusor muscle. These functions promote urine retention.

Answer 1037

The parasympathetic nervous system communicates with the bladder via the pelvic nerve(S2-S4).

Answer 1038

Increased signals from this nerve causes contraction of the detrusor muscle. This stimulates micturition.

Answer 1039

It innervates the external urethral sphincter, via the pudendal nerve (S2-S4). It can cause it to constrict (storage phase) or relax (micturition).

Answer 1040

They are found in the bladder wall and signal the need to urinate when the bladder becomes full.

Answer 1041

The bladder stretch reflex is a primitive spinal reflex, in which micturition is stimulated in response to stretch.

Answer 1042

Pre-prostatic (intramural) Prostatic Membranous Spongy

Answer 1043

Begins at the internal urethral orifice, located at the neck of the bladder. It passes through the wall of the bladder, and ends at the prostate.

Answer 1044

Passes through the prostate gland. The ejaculatory ducts (containing spermatozoa from the testes, and seminal fluid from the seminal vesicle glands) and the prostatic ducts drain into the urethra here.

Answer 1045

Passes through the pelvic floor, and the deep perineal pouch. It is surrounded by the external urethral sphincter, which provides voluntary control of micturition.

Answer 1046

Passes through the bulb and corpus spongiosum of the penis, ending at the external urethral orifice. In the glans penis, the urethra dilates, forming the navicular fossa. The bulbourethral glands empty into the proximal urethra.

Answer 1047

The urethra begins at the neck of the bladder, and passes inferiorly through the perineal membrane and muscular pelvic floor. It opens directly onto the perineum, in an area between the labia minora, known as the vestibule.

Answer 1048

Within the vestibule, the urethral orifice is located anteriorly to the vaginal opening, and 2-3cm posteriorly to the clitoris.

Answer 1049

The most proximal, fixed part of the penis. It is located in the superficial perineal pouch of the pelvic floor, and is not visible externally.

Answer 1050

The root contains three erectile tissues (two crura and bulb of the penis), and two muscles (ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus).

Answer 1051

Corpus spongiosum

Answer 1052

The erectile tissues fill with blood during sexual arousal, producing an erection. The root and body of the penis are spanned by three masses of erectile tissue.

Answer 1053

The left and right crura move anteriorly into the dorsal part of the penis – they form the two corpora cavernosa.

Answer 1054

The male urethra runs through the corpus spongiosum – to prevent it becoming occluded during erection the corpus spongiosum fills to a reduced pressure.

Answer 1055

Bulbospongiosus (x2) Ischiocavernosus (x2)

Answer 1056

It is associated with the bulb of the penis. It contracts to empty the spongy urethra of any residual semen and urine. The anterior fibres also aid in maintaining erection by increasing the pressure in the bulb of the penis.

Answer 1057

It surrounds the left and right crura of the penis. It contracts to force blood from the cavernous spaces in the crura into the corpus cavernosa – this helps maintain erection.

Answer 1058

Each mass of erectile tissue has two fascial coverings

Answer 1059

The most superficial layer is the deep fascia of the penis. This is a continuation of the deep perineal fascia, and forms a strong membranous covering which binds the erectile tissues together. Underneath the deep fascia is the tunica albuginea, forming an individual capsule around each cavernous body.

Answer 1060

A condensation of deep fascia. It connects the erectile bodies of the penis to the pubic symphysis.

Answer 1061

A condensation of abdominal subcutaneous tissue. It runs down from the linea alba, surrounding the penis like a sling, and attaching to the pubic symphysis.

Answer 1062

The prepuce (foreskin) is a double layer of skin and fascia, located at the neck of the glans.

Answer 1063

The prepuce is connected to the skin of the glans by the frenulum, a median fold of skin on the ventral surface of the penis.

Answer 1064

Dorsal arteries of the penis Deep arteries of the penis Bulbourethral artery These arteries are all branches of the internal pudendal artery. This vessel arises from the anterior division of the internal iliac artery.

Answer 1065

The penis is supplied by S2-S4 spinal cord segments and spinal ganglia.

Answer 1066

Sensory and sympathetic innervation to the skin and glans penis is supplied by the dorsal nerve of the penis, a branch of the pudendal nerve.

Answer 1067

Parasympathetic innervation is carried by cavernous nerves from the prostatic nerve plexus, and is responsible for the vascular changes which cause erection.

Answer 1068

The testes are the site of sperm production and hormone synthesis, while the epididymis has a role in the storage of sperm.

Answer 1069

They are suspended from the abdomen by the spermatic cord – collection of vessels, nerves and ducts that supply the testes.

Answer 1070

Spermatozoa are produced in the seminiferous tubules.

Answer 1071

The developing sperm travels through the tubules, collecting in the rete testes. Ducts known as efferent tubules transport the sperm from the rete testes to the epididymis for storage.

Answer 1072

2: the tunica vaginalis and the tunica albuginea

Answer 1073

The tunica vaginalis is situated externally, covering the anterior surface and sides of each testicle. It is derived from abdominal peritoneum during development.

Answer 1074

The tunica albuginea is a fibrous capsule that encloses the testes. It penetrates into the parenchyma of each testicle, dividing it into lobules.

Answer 1075

The epididymis consists of a single heavily coiled duct.

Answer 1076

It can be divided into three parts; head, body and tail.

Answer 1077

The most proximal part of the epididymis. It is formed by the efferent tubules of the testes, which transport sperm from the testes to the epididymis.

Answer 1078

Formed by the heavily coiled duct of the epididymis.

Answer 1079

The most distal part of the epididymis. It marks the origin of the vas deferens, which transports sperm to the urethra for ejaculation.

Answer 1080

Arterial supply to the testes and epididymis is via the paired testicular arteries, which arise directly from the abdominal aorta. They descend down the abdomen, and pass into the scrotum via the inguinal canal, contained within the spermatic cord.

Answer 1081

A network of veins wrapped around the testicular artery.

Answer 1082

The scrotum is a fibromuscular cutaneous sac, located between the penis and anus. It is dual-chambered, forming an expansion of the perineum.

Answer 1083

Testis – the site of sperm production. Epididymis – situated at the head of each testicle. It functions as a storage reservoir for sperm. Spermatic cord – a collection of muscle fibres, vessels, nerves and ducts that run to and from the testes.

Answer 1084

The dartos muscle is a sheet of smooth muscle, situated immediately underneath the skin in the scrotum.

Answer 1085

It acts to help regulate the temperature of the scrotum, by wrinkling the skin – this decreases surface area, reducing heat loss.

Answer 1086

The scrotum receives arterial supply from the anterior and posterior scrotal arteries.

Answer 1087

The anterior scrotal artery arises from the external pudendal artery, while the posterior is derived from the internal pudendal artery.

Answer 1088

Genital branch of genitofemoral nerve Anterior scrotal nerves Posterior scrotal nerves Perineal branches of posterior femoral cutaneous nerve

Answer 1089

The spermatic cord is formed at the opening of the inguinal canal, known as the deep inguinal ring. This opening is located laterally to the inferior epigastric vessels.

Answer 1090

The cord passes through the inguinal canal, entering the scrotum via the superficial inguinal ring. It continues into the scrotum, ending at the posterior border of the testes.

Answer 1091

External spermatic fascia – derived from the aponeurosis of the external oblique. Cremaster muscle and fascia – derived from the internal oblique and its fascial coverings. Internal spermatic fascia – derived from the transversalis fascia.

Answer 1092

The cremaster muscle forms the middle layer of the spermatic cord fascia. It is a discontinuous layer of striated muscle, that is orientated longitudinally.

Answer 1093

Testicular artery Cremasteric artery and vein Artery to the vas deferens Pampiniform plexus of testicular veins Genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve Vas deferens Lymph vessels Autonomic nerves

Answer 1094

The pampiniform plexus is a network of veins, responsible for the venous drainage of the testes. It has a unique configuration, wrapping itself around the testicular artery

Answer 1095

As it travels through the inguinal canal, the pampiniform plexus condenses into a single testicular vein. The right testicular vein drains into the inferior vena cava and the left testicular vein drains into the left renal vein.

Answer 1096

The vas deferens is a straight, thick muscular tube that conveys sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct

Answer 1097

It is formed by the convergence of the vas deferens and seminal vesicle duct

Answer 1098

This coat consists of three muscle layers – inner layer of longitunidal muscle, intermediate layer of circular muscle, and an outer layer of longitunidal muscle.

Answer 1099

It is continuous with the tail of the epididymis. Travels through the inguinal canal. Moves down the lateral pelvic wall in close proximity to the ischial spine. Turns medially to pass between the bladder and the urethra. Joins the duct from the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct.

Answer 1100

It secretes proteolytic enzymes into the semen, which act to break down clotting factors in the ejaculate. This allows the semen to remain in a fluid state, moving throughout the female reproductive tract for potential fertilisation.

Answer 1101

The prostate is positioned inferiorly to the neck of the bladder and superiorly to the external urethral sphincter, with the levator ani muscle lying inferolaterally to the gland. Posteriorly to the prostate lies the ampulla of the rectum

Answer 1102

The proteolytic enyzmes leave the prostate via the prostatic ducts.

Answer 1103

These open into the prostatic portion of the urethra, secreting the enzymes into the semen immediately before ejaculation.

Answer 1104

Central zone – Surrounds the ejaculatory ducts, embryologically derived from the Wolffian duct. Transitional zone – Located centrally and surrounds the urethra, embryologically derived from the urogenital sinus. Peripheral zone – Makes up the main body of the gland and located posteriorly, embryologically derived from the Urogenital Sinus. The peripheral zone is the zone felt against the rectum on DRE.

Answer 1105

The arterial supply to the prostate comes from the prostatic arteries, which are mainly derived from the internal iliac arteries. They also arise from the internal pudendal and middle rectal arteries.

Answer 1106

The prostate receives sympathetic, parasympathetic and sensory innervation from the inferior hypogastric plexus. The smooth muscle of the prostate gland is innervated by sympathetic fibres, which activate during ejaculation.

Answer 1107

The bulbourethral glands (also known as Cowper’s glands) are a pair of pea shaped exocrine glands located posterolateral to the membranous urethra.

Answer 1108

They contribute to the final volume of semen by producing a lubricating mucus secretion.

Answer 1109

Embryologically the bulbourethral glands are derived from the urogenital sinus, along with the bladder, prostate and urethra.

Answer 1110

These secretions are also alkaline in nature and may help to neutralise residual acidity in the male urethra.

Answer 1111

The seminal glands are a pair of small (5cm long) tubular glands. They are located between the bladder fundus and the rectum (separated from the latter by the rectovesicle pouch).

Answer 1112

Alkaline fluid – neutralises the acidity of the male urethra and vagina in order to facilitate the survival of spermatazoa. Fructose – provides an energy source for spermatozoa and helps ‘em keep on swimming. Prostaglandins – have a role in suppressing the female immune response to foreign semen. Clotting factors – designed to keep semen in the female reproductive tract post-ejaculation.

Answer 1113

Mainly (70%) from the seminal fluid. The remaining volume of semen is made up of testicular spermatozoa, prostatic secretions and mucus from the bulbourethral gland.

Answer 1114

The ligaments of the female reproductive tract can be divided into three categories: Broad ligament – a sheet of peritoneum, associated with both the uterus and ovaries. Uterine ligaments – ligaments primarily associated with the uterus. Ovarian ligaments – ligaments primary associated with the ovaries.

Answer 1115

The broad ligament is a flat sheet of peritoneum, associated with the uterus, fallopian tubes and ovaries. It extends from the lateral pelvic walls on both sides, and folds over the internal female genitalia, covering their surface anteriorly and posteriorly.

Answer 1116

It is attached to the uterus, fallopian tubes and ovaries. These organs are supplied by the ovarian and uterine arteries, which are also contained within the broad ligament.

Answer 1117

Ovarian ligament. Round ligament of uterus. Suspensory ligament of ovary (also known as the infundibulopelvic ligament).

Answer 1118

The ovarian ligament is attached to the ovary inferiorly. It connects the ovary to the side of the uterus. Structurally, it is a fibrous band of tissue that lies within the broad ligament. It joins the uterus just below the origin of the fallopian tubes.

Answer 1119

The suspensory ligament of ovary extends outwards from the ovary to the lateral abdominal wall. It consists of a fold of peritoneum, thus some sources consider it to be part of the broad ligament.

Answer 1120

The function of this ligament is to contain the ovarian vessels and nerves (ovarian artery, ovarian vein, ovarian nerve plexus and lymphatic vessels).

Answer 1121

It originates at the uterine horns (the points at which the fallopian tubes enter the uterus), and attaches to the labia majora, passing through the inguinal canal.

Answer 1122

The external genital organs of the female are collectively known as the vulva (also called the pudendum).

Answer 1123

To act as sensory tissue during sexual intercourse To assist in micturition, by directing the flow of urine Defend the internal female reproductive tract from infection.

Answer 1124

Mons pubis Labia majora Labia minora Vestibule Bartholin’s Glands Clitoris

Answer 1125

A fat pad at the anterior of the vulva, which is covered in pubic hair.

Answer 1126

Two hair-bearing external folds, embryologically derived from labioscrotal swellings. They fuse posteriorly and extend anteriorly to the mons pubis.

Answer 1127

Two hairless folds of skin, embryologically derived from urethral folds. They lie within the labia majora. They fuse anteriorly to form the prepuce (hood) of the clitoris and extend posteriorly either side of the vaginal opening. They fuse again posterior to the vestibule, creating a fold of skin called the fourchette.

Answer 1128

The area between and surrounding the labia. The external vaginal orifice (vaginal opening) and urethra open into the vestibule.

Answer 1129

Located either side of the vaginal orifice, these glands secrete lubricating mucus from small ducts during sexual arousion.

Answer 1130

Located under the prepuce and embryologically derived from the genital tubercle. The clitoris is formed of erectile corpora cavernosa tissue, which becomes engorged with blood during sexual stimulation.

Answer 1131

Blood supply to the external genitalia is delivered by the paired pudendal arteries, with the internal branch contributing mostly.

Answer 1132

The external female genitalia receives sensory and parasympathetic nervous supply.

Answer 1133

The vagina is a distensible muscular tube, approximately 9cm long. It extends upwards and backwards from the vestibule of the external genitalia, to the cervix.

Answer 1134

1. During sexual intercourse, the vagina receives the penis and ejaculate, assisting its transport to the uterus. 2. Expands to provide a channel delivery of a newborn from the uterus to the outside world during childbirth. 3. It serves as a canal for menstrual fluid and tissue to leave the body.

Answer 1135

Anterior to the vagina is the bladder and urethra. Posterior to the vagina is the rectum and anus. Laterally located are the ureter and uterine artery.

Answer 1136

Blood is supplied to the vagina by the uterine and vaginal arteries, both branches of the internal iliac artery.

Answer 1137

The parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves supplying the vagina are derived from the uterovaginal nerve plexus.

Answer 1138

The cervix is the most distal portion of the uterus, an organ of the female reproductive tract. It connects the vagina with the main body of the uterus, acting as a gateway between them.

Answer 1139

The cervix is composed of two regions; the ectocervix and the endocervical canal.

Answer 1140

The ectocervix is the portion of the cervix that projects into the vagina. It is lined by stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium.

Answer 1141

The opening in the ectocervix, the external os, marks the transition from the ectocervix to the endocervical canal.

Answer 1142

The endocervical canal (or endocervix) is the more proximal, and ‘inner’ part of the cervix. It is lined by a mucus-secreting simple columnar epithelium.

Answer 1143

The endocervical canal ends, and the uterine cavity begins, at a narrowing called the internal os.

Answer 1144

It facilitates the passage of sperm into the uterine cavity. This is achieved via dilation of the external and internal os. Maintains sterility of the upper female reproductive tract.This ultimately protects the uterine cavity and the upper genital tract by preventing bacterial invasion.

Answer 1145

The blood supply to the uterus is via the uterine artery.

Answer 1146

Secondary sex organs are components of the reproductive tract that mature during puberty under the influence of sex hormones produced from primary sex organs (the ovaries in females and the testes in males).

Answer 1147

The uterus is a thick-walled muscular organ capable of expansion to accommodate a growing fetus. It is connected distally to the vagina, and laterally to the uterine tubes.

Answer 1148

Fundus: Top of the uterus, above the entry point of the uterine tubes. Body: Usual site for implantation of the blastocyst. Cervix: Lower part of uterus linking it with the vagina. This part is structurally and functionally different to the rest of the uterus. See here for more information about the cervix.

Answer 1149

The exact anatomical location of the uterus varies with the degree of distension of the bladder. In the normal adult uterus, it can be described as anteverted with respect to the vagina, and anteflexed with respect to the cervix

Answer 1150

Rotated forward, towards the anterior surface of the body.

Answer 1151

Flexed, towards the anterior surface of the body.

Answer 1152

The blood supply to the uterus is via the uterine artery.

Answer 1153

They lie in the upper border of the broad ligament, extending laterally from the uterus, opening into the abdominal cavity, near the ovaries.

Answer 1154

The main function of the uterine tubes is to assist in the transfer and transport of the ovum from the ovary, to the uterus.

Answer 1155

The inner mucosa is lined with ciliated columnar epithelial cells and peg cells (non-ciliated secretory cells). They waft the ovum towards the uterus and supply it with nutrients. Smooth muscle layer contracts to assist with transportation of the ova and sperm. Muscle is sensitive to sex steroids, and thus peristalsis is greatest when oestrogen levels are high.

Answer 1156

- Fimbriae: Finger-like, ciliated projections which capture the ovum from the surface of the ovary. – Infundibulum: Funnel-shaped opening near the ovary to which fimbriae are attached. – Ampulla: Widest section of the uterine tubes. Fertilization usually occurs here. – Isthmus: Narrow section of the uterine tubes connecting the ampulla to the uterine cavity.

Answer 1157

The arterial supply to the uterine tubes is via the uterine and ovarian arteries.

Answer 1158

The ovaries are paired, oval organs attached to the posterior surface of the broad ligament of the uterus by the mesovarium (a fold of peritoneum, continuous with the outer surface of the ovaries).

Answer 1159

Neurovascular structures enter the hilum of the ovary via the mesovarium.

Answer 1160

1. To produce oocytes (female gametes) in preparation for fertilization. 2. To produce the sex steroid hormones oestrogen and progesterone, in response to pituitary gonadotrophins (LH and FSH).

Answer 1161

Surface Cortex Medulla

Answer 1162

The surface layer of the ovary is formed by simple cuboidal epithelium, known as germinal epithelium.

Answer 1163

The cortex (outer part) of the ovary is largely comprised of a connective tissue stroma. It supports thousands of follicles. Each primordial follicle contains an oocyte surrounded by a single layer of follicular cells.

Answer 1164

The medulla (inner part) is composed of supporting stroma and contains a rich neurovascular network which enters the hilum of ovary from the mesovarium.

Answer 1165

The ovaries receive blood from paired ovarian arteries, which arise directly from the abdominal aorta, below the renal artery.

Answer 1166

The anterior thigh

Answer 1167

Medial thigh compartment (adductors)

Answer 1168

Hamstrings

Answer 1169

The posterior compartment of the leg and the sole of the foot

Answer 1170

The anterior compartment of the leg

Answer 1171

The lateral compartment of the leg

Answer 1172

Middle colic, right colic and iliocolic

Answer 1173

Left colic, sigmoid artery, superior rectal

Answer 1174

The anastomases of the terminal branches of the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries

Answer 1175

Splenic and superior mesenteric veins drain into the hepatic portal vein, which drains into the IVC

Answer 1176

Medially: psoas major and minor Laterally: quadratus lumborum Inferiorly: iliacus Superiorly: Diaphragm

Anatomy Flashcards

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