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A&P > Anatomy FINAL > Flashcards

Anatomy FINAL Flashcards

1
Q

Sympathetic division has widespread effects:

A

Short preganglionic fibers, long postganglionic fibers (except at adrenal medulla)
Preganglionic neurons are limited to spinal cord segments T1–L2
Preganglionic neurons release ACh; most postganglionic fibers release NE

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2
Q

Parasympathetic division has specific effects:

A

Long preganglionic fibers, short postganglionic fibers
Ganglionic neurons are located in ganglia within or next to target organs
Preganglionic neurons are limited to cervical and sacral spinal cord segments
All neurons are cholinergic
Effects are generally brief and restricted

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3
Q

Chain Ganglia

A

Thoracolumnar
Innervates visceral effectors by spinal nerves + visceral organs in thoracic cavity.

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4
Q

Collateral Ganglia

A

Innvervates organs in abdominalpelvic cavity
Thoracolumnar

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5
Q

Adrenal Medullae

A

Thoracolumnar
secretes NT’s into circulation.

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6
Q

Parasympathetic division is also known as

A

cranialsacral

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7
Q

Sympathetic nerves have _____ preganglonic and ____ post ganglionic nerves. What about Parasympathetic?

A

Short, Long
Long, short

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8
Q

Sympathetic

A

Fight or flight
need to be alert
emergency situations
reduced digestive and urinary functions
increased metabolic rates (wants cells to activate and react to the dire situation)

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9
Q

Parasympathetic

A

Rest and digest
conserve and maintain energy
post-meal

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10
Q

Dual innervation

A

all visceral organs served by both divisions, but cause opposite effects.

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11
Q

autonomic tone

A

both pathways are slightly active.
Nerves maintain background level activity, they can increase or decrease activity (provides greater range of control)

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12
Q

Heart receives dual innervation:

A

stimulating parasympathetic nerves and inhibiting sympathetic.

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13
Q

Where does autonomic tone occur

A

where dual innervation occurs
more important where it does not occur

especially important in areas where only one division occurs.

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14
Q

Some organs are innervated by

A

only one division
sympathetic control w/ blood vessel diameter

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15
Q

NE is released from _____ at Smooth muscle cells in ______

A

sympathetic fibers, blood vessel walls.

sympathetic tone keeps muscles partially contracted.

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16
Q

Where more blood flow is needed,

A

rate of NE release decreased
sympathetic cholinergic fibers are stimulated
smooth muscle cells relax and blood vessels dilates.

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17
Q

What are the three characteristics of higher-order functions?

A

A
Require the cerebral cortex
involve conscious and unconscious information processing.
Subject to adjustment over time (not innate, fixed behaviors)

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18
Q

fact vs. skill memories

A

Fact: Cerebellum w/ motor movements
Skill: Action to it, a learned behavior- riding a bike, playing an instrument

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19
Q

Q
Short-term vs. Long-term memory:

A

Short: don’t last for a long time, during the period you have them you can recall them quickly.
Long: lasts for a longer period of time especially if you’re consistently using that skill.

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20
Q

Steps of memory storage

A

Sensory Input > short term memory ? Consolidation > Secondary Memory > Tertiary Memory

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21
Q

Fact memory is stored in

A

cerebral cortex

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22
Q

Skill memory is stored in

A

cerebral cortex and cerebellar cortex

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23
Q

What brain regions are involved in memory consolidation and access?

A

A
Hippocampus + amygdaloid body (memory consolidation for long-term memory)
nucleus basalis
(near diencephalon- unknown role)
cerebral cortex
(storage of long-term memory)

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24
Q

Anatomical + Physiological Changes in Neurons + Synapses

A

Increased neurotransmitter release
Facilitation at synapses
Formation of additional synaptic connections

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25
Q

Frequency + Amplitude from High Frequency/Low Amp > Low Frequency/High Amp

A

Awake > REM > DSW (slow wave)

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26
Q

Reticular Activating System

A

regulates behavioural arousal, consciousness and motivation.

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27
Q

Rods will tell you

A

the absence of light- contrast

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28
Q

Cones will tell you

A

color and a very sharp image, but you need an abundance of light in order to activate cones

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29
Q

Light transduction:

A

rods and cones > bipolar cells > ganglion cells > SCN

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30
Q

Amacrine cell

A

can help bring a cell to an action potential for the next step- alter the sensitivity to the eye- help that msg be transferred or inhibits it.

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31
Q

Fovea centralis

A

where we are going to get our clearest, sharpest vision

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32
Q

optic disc

A

where the signal is received, where the blood vessels to the eye are.

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33
Q

Anterior cavity

A

aqueous humor, like CSF where this a production point and an exit point.

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34
Q

Aqueous humor is needed for

A

A
nutrient and waste transport, fluid cushion, provides pressure to retain shape

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35
Q

Ciliary body is in the

A

vascular layer

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36
Q

Entrance and Exit point for the aqueous humor:

A

Enter: Ciliary Body
Exit: scleral venous sinus

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37
Q

Vitreous Humor

A

Gelatinous- makes sure the structure of the eyeball is maintained- it is not circulated through.

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38
Q

Posterior cavity has

A

Vitreous Humor

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39
Q

Q
Lens is attached to the ciliary body via

A

ciliary zonule (ligaments)

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40
Q

Lens:

A

be able to change to shape of it in response to light and focus light on the retina.
how’s two regions: lens epithelium anteriorly and lens fibers which forms the bulk of lens

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41
Q

Lens fibers are filled with

A

A
transparent protein crystallin (needs to be transparent in order for light to go through)

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42
Q

Lens in general become ____ with age.

A

dense, convex, less elastic (ability to maintain eyeball structure fails; can’t round it out anymore).

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43
Q

Cataracts

A

clouding of lens (proteins clump over time), can be taken out and restored

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44
Q

Focal point

A

specific point of intersection of light rays on retina (where we want to converge to get to the retina)

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45
Q

Astigmatism:

A

A
condition where light passing through cornea and lens I son t refracted properly; visual image is distorted.

46
Q

Accommodation:

A

autonomic adjustment of eye to provide clear vision
lens become rounder to focus on nearby objects
flatter lens allows focus on distant objects

47
Q

Near vision:

A

A
light rays aren’t parallel, lens need to change in order to focus those rays on our retina

Ciliary muscle (arranged in a circle) contracts. letting ligaments go loose, not so much tension, lets it round out.

48
Q

Distant vision:

A

Lens flatten, light rays are parallel, ciliary muscle relaxes which causes ligaments to stretch and cause tension

49
Q

Light at the point at the top is focused on ___

A

lower retinal surface, upside down, and reversed

50
Q

Near sighted means

A

you can see things close to you, but not far.
Eyeball is too long/deep- when you focus light rays it’s right in front of retina not on it.
Corrected with concave lens

51
Q

Far-sighted means

A

you can see things far, but not close.
Eyeball is too short, the light rays will meet behind the retina because there’s no convergence on the retina.
Corrected with convex lens

52
Q

Optic radiation

A

bundle of projection fibers linking thalamus with visual cortex

53
Q

Order of ossicles

A

Malleus > incus > stapes (pushes on oval window)

54
Q

Muscles are contractive so that

A

they don’t bounce on each other really hard.

55
Q

Vestibule

A

lets us know about linear movements.

56
Q

Semicircular canals

A

lets us know about rotational movement.

57
Q

Spiral organ

A

contains hair cells that get bent; receptor for hearing.

58
Q

Olfactory pathway to the cerebrum:

A

Olfactory epithelium > nerve fiber (I) > bulb > tract > CNS

59
Q

Lamina propria

A

connective tissue that is made up of blood vessels and signal transduction.

60
Q

What three structures do not go through the thalamus, but receive the stimulus from odorants?

A

olfactory cortex, hypothalamus, and limbic system (only one of the special senses that doesn’t use the thalamus).

61
Q

Our olfactory sensory neuron is a bipolar neuron that is also a

A

odorant receptor

62
Q

Q
How does an olfactory sensory neuron receive the odorants?

A

Olfactory dendrites at the surface that contain receptor proteins.

63
Q

Basal epithelium cells will

A

divide to replace worn-out olfactory sensory neurons.

64
Q

Using a neuron as a receptor for the odorant to bind to to induce mechanisms that help depolarize the receptor cell.

A

Olfaction

65
Q

Olfactory receptors are replaced ____

A

frequently

66
Q

What happens to the number of olfactory neurons as we age?

A

they decline with age

67
Q

Filiform papillae have no

A

A

taste buds

68
Q

Fungiform, vallate, and foliate DO have ____ unlike filiform papillae

A

taste buds

69
Q

wherever the taste buds are are where the ____ are

A

gustatory receptors are.

70
Q

gustatory epithelial cells

A

A
receive the dissolved material from saliva and start transduction.

71
Q

Transduction from the gustatory epithelium cells travels to the ____ and the tastants bind to them.

A

taste hairs

72
Q

Q
Taste buds can become damaged, so taste buds have ____

A

basal epithelium cells.

73
Q

Unlike olfactory, there are two ways to depolarize the gustatory cell. What two mechanisms allow for this?

A

Salt/Sour channels + sweet, bitter, and umami receptors

74
Q

Q
Salt/Sour channels have ____ to have Na and H to travel in to depolarize the cell.

A

leak channels

75
Q

Sweet, bitter, and umami receptors utilize

A

more like olfaction (having a having a structure like an odorant, in this case gustucin, bind to the protein to depolarize the cell

76
Q

Gustation pathway:

A

A
Cranial nerve VII, IX, X > medulla oblongata > thalamus > gustatory cortex

77
Q

Taste sensitivity ____ with age

A

Decreases with age, that is to say you have high sensitivity as a kid and low as an adult.

78
Q

One hormone can have many hormones as long as they have _____

A

the receptor for that hormone.

79
Q

both nervous and endocrine system:

A

function to maintain homeostasis
regulated by negative feedback
rely on release of chemicals that bind to specific receptors.

80
Q

Q
Differences between nervous system and endocrine system:

A

Nervous: Fast, but brief
Endocrine: Slow/long-term

81
Q

Amino acid derivatives (changed slightly and become a hormone)

A

Small; not lipid soluble
Ex. thyroid hormone, serotonin, melatonin.
Can’t go lipid bilayer.

82
Q

Peptide hormones

A

Chains of amino acids, not lipid soluble
Ex. insulin, growth hormone, ADH

83
Q

Lipid derivative

A

Derived from fatty acids or cholesterol; lipid soluble, can cross plasma membrane, need a transport protein for this.

84
Q

Q
Hormones may circulate freely or travel bound to ___

A

special carrier proteins

85
Q

When hormones become inactivated, they

A

diffuse out of bloodstream and bind to receptors on target cells

are absorbed and broken down by liver or kidneys

are broken down by enzymes in blood or interstitial fluids.

86
Q

Mechanisms of hormone action

A

A
alter genetic activity

alter rate of protein synthesis

change membrane permeability

87
Q

Catecholamines and peptide hormones:

A

not lipid soluble

unable to penetrate plasma membrane

bind to receptor proteins on outer surface of plasma membrane (extracellular receptors)

88
Q

Steroid and thyroid hormones:

A

lipid soluble

diffuse across plasma membrane and bind to receptors inside cell.

89
Q

Two cell types in the parathyroid glands

A

A
Parathyrioid cells: used for making PTH
Oxyphil cells: function is unknown.

Hormone producing cells of the gland.

90
Q

Increased Calcitonin = _____ Calcitriol

A

decreased, responds to increased secretion of calcium

91
Q

Kidney’s help get rid of excess

A

ions to bring the body back to homeostasis

92
Q

Decreased Blood, with decreased calcium levels =

A

Parathyroid cells > PTH > kidneys > increased reabsorption of calcium and calcium is released from the bone. Increased calcitriol.

93
Q

Humoral Stimulus

A

Not a hormone, but an increase or decrease of it (ions) will cause the release of hormones elsewhere.

94
Q

Hormonal stimuli

A

(arrival or removal of hormone)

95
Q

Neural stimuli

A

(neurotransmitters)

96
Q

Hormones of Anterior Lobe

A

TSH, ACTH, PRL, GH, FSH, LH

97
Q

Hormones of Posterior Lobe

A

ADH, OXT

98
Q

Thyroglobulin

A

Globular protein synthesized by follicle cells
Secreted into colloid of thyroid follicles
Contains the amino acid tyrosine

99
Q

Homeostasis of Thyroid Hormones involves:

A

Restoration from increasing T2 and T4 concentrations in blood.

100
Q

The main action of antidiuretic hormone is

A

increased water conservation by kidneys.

101
Q

Catecholamines and peptide hormones

A

Not lipid soluble
Unable to penetrate plasma membrane
Bind to receptor proteins on outer surface of plasma membrane (extracellular receptors

102
Q

Steroid and thyroid hormones

A

Lipid soluble
Diffuse across plasma membrane and bind to receptors inside cell (intracellular receptors)

103
Q

The three mechanisms of hypothalamic integration of neural and endocrine function are

A

1) the hypothalamus produces regulatory hormones that control secretion by endocrine cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
2) The hypothalamus contains autonomic centers that exert direct neural control over the endocrine cells of the adrenal medullae.
3) The hypothalamus releases ADH and oxytocin into the bloodstream at the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. These mechanisms are adjusted through negative feedback loops involving hormones released by peripheral endocrine tissues and organs.

104
Q

PTH _____ calcium levels, meaning that there is an activation of osteoclasts that ____

A

increases, absorb calcium.

105
Q

Myopia

A

Lens is too long and less round

106
Q

Hyperopia

A

Lens is too short and round

107
Q
  1. Tympanic membrane
  2. Displacement of MIS
  3. Oval Window produces pressure waves of the Scala vestibuli
  4. Waves distort basilar membrane > round window of Scala tympani
  5. Vibration of basilar membrane causes vibration of hair cells against tectorial membrane
  6. Info is relayed to the CNS over the cochlear nerve.
A

Sound Transduction

108
Q

Stapes moves inward

A

Round window pushed outward

109
Q

Stapes moves outward

A

Round window pulled inward

110
Q
  1. Stimulation of hair cells at basilar membrane activates sensory neurons.
  2. Sensory > auditory through cochlear nerve to the nucleus on that side
  3. Information ascends from each cochlear nucleus to the superior olivary nuclei of the pons and the inferior colliculi of the midbrain.
  4. Inferior colliculi > unconscious motor responses to sounds
  5. Ascending auditory information goes to the medial geniculate body.
  6. Projection fibers then deliver the information to specific locations within the auditory cortex of the temporal lobe.
A

Auditory transduction

111
Q
A

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