ANTH BLOCK 2 Flashcards
(83 cards)
1
Q
What is Social Anthropology?
A
What is Social Anthropology?
- The study of Human Diversity
2
Q
Origins of Social Anthropology
Origins in European history:
A
Origins of Social Anthropology
Origins in European history:
- Renaissance/Enlightenment: ‘Man,’ humanity, is the measure of all ‘things’ … same ‘underrneath’
3
Q
Enlightenment Definitions:
A
Enlightenment Definitions:
- “ A late eighteenth-century international movement in thought, with important social & political ramifications. The Enlightenment is at once a style, an attitude, a temper critical, secular, sceptical, empirical, and practical. It is also characterized by core beliefs in human rationality, in what it took to be ‘nature’ and in all ‘natural feelings’ of [sic] mankind. Four of its most prominent exemplars are Hume, Thomas Jefferson, Kant & Voltair
4
Q
Enlightenment definitions cont…
A
Enlightenment definitions cont…
- The Enlightenment represented itself as a return to the classical ideas of the Greeks & (more especially) the Romans. But in fact it provided one source of the revolutions that shook Europe & America at the end of the eighteenth century, and it laid the foundations for both the generally scientific worldview & the liberal democratic society, which, despite the many attacks made on them, continue to function as cultural ideas
5
Q
Characteristics of Enlightenment:
TTHE
A
Characteristics of Enlightenment
TTHE:
- The truth was there to be ‘discovered’ by observation & scientific methods
- The enlightenment had practical results & is evident in the French Revolution, Captain Cooks journals, the US Constitution, Haitian independence & the legal-constitutional mechanisms
- Human beings are born free
- Emphasis on rationality
6
Q
Founders of the ‘modern world’
Who?
The emphasised?
The physical & human world could be rendered knowable through
- (1596-1650)
A
Founders of the ‘modern world’
Who:
- Many philosophers, scientists, mathematicians & playwrights are described as “founders of the modern world”
The emphasised:
- The visual
The physical & human world could be rendered knowable through:
- Observation & tested through scientific methods
(1596-1650)
- Rene Descartes
7
Q
Cartesian World Views
- “The ‘Cartesisian’ division (of the world) allowed:
A
Cartesian World Views
“The ‘Cartesisian’ division (of the world) allowed:
- Scientist to treat matter as dead and completely separate from themselves, and to see the material world as multitude of different objects assembles into a huge machine
8
Q
Holism
When-ever:
Where-ever:
Multiple perspectives (sub-fields) with the aim of?
A
Holism
When-ever:
- From the beginning of human history until now
Where-ever:
- all varieties of people everywhere
Multiple perspectives (sub-fields) with the aim of? - Integrating them
9
Q
Sub-fields of Anthropology?
LABS
A
Sub-fields of Anthropology?
LABS
1) Linguistic Anthropology (Linguistics)
2) Archaeology
3) Biological/Physical Anthropology
4) Socio-Cultral Anthropology
10
Q
Biological/Physical Anthropology:
A
Biological/Physical Anthropology:
- Human & species development
- Nonhuman species (primatology)
- Human & non-human genetics
11
Q
Is Biology Destiny? ‘Bio-Culture’
A
Is Biology Destiny? ‘Bio-Culture’:
- Culture is a key force in how humanbodies - individually & collectively - grow & develop
12
Q
Sub Field Linguistic Anthropology Humans as the ‘talking animal’
- Study of?
Historical linguists:
Socio-linguistics:
A
Sub Field Linguistic Anthropology Humans as the ‘talking animal’
Study of:
- Language in its socio-cultral context
Historical linguists:
- Reconstruct ‘extinct’ languages
Socio-linguistics:
- Investigates relationships between language, culture & social relations
- Socio-culture variation & linguistic variation
13
Q
Sub-field Social Anthropology
Also called?
Emphasis on:
A
Sub-field Social Anthropology
Also called?
- ‘cultural anthropology’ or ‘socio-cultural anthropology’
Emphasis on:
- recent or ‘living’ cultures, rather than past ones, as archaeology
14
Q
Social/Cultural Anthropologist
Focus on:
A
Social/Cultural Anthropologist
Focus on:
- Why humans behave the ways they do
- Why some groups behave differently from other groups
15
Q
Anthropology & Sociology
Anthropologist usually work with:
Usually:
Interaction:
More:
A
Anthropology & Sociology
Anthropologist usually work with:
- Smaller groups
Usually:
- Spend longer time on research (1-2 years)
Interaction:
- Face-to-face
More:
- More qualitative than quantitative
- Collect ‘stories’ rather than compile ‘statistics’
- Readers vs Counters
16
Q
Anthropology & Psychology
Social anthropology: greater focus on the whole:
Increasing overlap b/w anthropology & psychology:
A
Anthropology & Psychology
Social anthropology:greater focus on the whole:
- The whole is greater than the sum parts of it (individuals)
Increasing overlap b/w anthropology & psychology:
- Anthropological studies in cross-cultural variation in psychology
- Child rearing
- Personhood & identity
17
Q
Pets vs Prey (hunting vs pet keeping, Fukuda 1997
Key themes:
A
Pets vs Prey (hunting vs pet keeping, Fukuda 1997
Key themes:
- Interaction
- Cruelty/suffering/distress
- Vermin/game/wild vs tame/companion/pets
18
Q
Competition or Companionship
Competition:
Companionship:
A
Competition or Companionship
Competition:
- Humans and animals
- Animals and humans. For example, a fox outwitting the hounds.
- Hunters ‘know’ animals in a way that those who do not hunt
Companionship:
- Therapeutic: ‘Thera-pet’
- Affectionate/loyal
- Not competitors, not ‘wild’
- Pet-keeping as cruel?
19
Q
Ethnography:
A
Ethnography:
- The distinctive marker of what a social anthropologist is
- Participant observation is a key ethnographic research method
- Knowledge of local language/s is important
20
Q
Precedents for Anthropological thought
- There is no
- Evolution:
- Functionalism and ‘meaning’ react against:
A
Precedents for Anthropological thought
There is no: ex nihilo creation
- Evolution did not not emerge in a vacuum
Evolutionism:
- Biblical story of fall from grace/out of Eden (decline)
Functionalism and ‘meaning’ react against:
- Evolutionist explanations
- Also react against each other
21
Q
Evolutionism
19th century:
Key figures:
Cultural diversity because:
A
Evolutionism
19th century:
- ‘Western’ thought
Key figures:
- Lewis H Morgan (1818-1881) (US)
- Edward B Taylor (1832-1917) (UK)
Cultural diversity because:
- all pass through a series of evolutionary stages
22
Q
Morgan & Tylor
All cultures:
Evolution:
A
Morgan & Tylor
All cultures:
- pass through the same development stages in the same order
Evolution:
- is unidirectional and moves from low/simple to high/complex
23
Q
Morgans Evolutionary Stages
SBC
A
Morgans Evolutionary Stages
SBC
1) Savagery: Subsisting on gathering (fruits & nuts) & hunting
2) Barbarism: Pottery, Agriculture
3) Civilization: Literacy
24
Q
Tylors Evolutionary Stages
MAP
A
Tylors Evolutionary Stages
MAP
Monotheism:
- one singular God/deity
Animism:
- Non- human entities (animals, plants & inanimate objects such as rocks) possess a spiritual essence
- Is the soul uniquely human?
Polytheism:
- Multiple deities (Gods)
25
Key Terms
Evolutionism
Singular:
Evolutionists put themselves:
Secular:
Secular humanity, contra polygenesis:
Key Terms
Evolutionism
Singular:
- not 'really' diverse: all societies could be ranked
Evolutionists put themselves:
- at the top, at the end of end of history
Secular:
- Promoting a 'science' of humanity
Secular humanity, contra polygenesis:
- Humans are equal & inventive
- Everyone will figure out their own paths on their own
26
Functionalism Bronislaw Malinowski
Bronislaw Malinowski
Set the standard for?
Conducted?
What type of work?
Functionalism Bronislaw Malinowski
Bronislaw Malinowski
Set the standard for?
- Conducting anthropological fieldwork
Conducted?
- Fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands, Papua New Guinea, 1915-1916 & 1917-1918
What type of work?
- 'Objective' and detailed ethnographic work, but there were his private diaries where he revealed a controversial side of his fieldwork
27
Functionalism vs Evolutionism
Society is like a?
- For example?
Where society, or its 'parts' comes from, is:
Functionalism vs Evolutionism
Society is like a:
- biological organism with many interconnected, co-dependent parts
- For example? the human body
Where society, or its 'parts' comes from, is:
- Not important
28
Functionalism as Method
Functionalism:
For example:
Important:
Functionalism as Method
Functionalism:
- how 'A' is related to 'B'?
For example:
- Where 'A; = how people produce food and 'B' = how people worship
- How does the A-B relation fit within a broader system that fulfils basic needs?
Important: society is about relations in the present
- Cannot change one part w/out changing the others
29
Functionalist Critique of Evolutionism
Functionalism rejects:
- Give example
Examine:
Functionalism can be:
Functionalist Critique of Evolutionism
Functionalism rejects:
- Evolutionism's emphasis on objects evidenced, for example, in linear museums displays
Examine:
- A whole society's division of labour
Functionalism can be:
- 'Unconscious'; separate from official stated purpose
30
Religion and Functionalism
A functionalist approach to the purpose of religious beliefs suggests:
Mean that anthropologists can ask:
Religion and Functionalism
A functionalist approach to the purpose of religious beliefs suggests:
- That they are a set of ideas which help people accommodate misfortunes & anxieties
Mean that anthropologists can ask:
- 'What is sacred?'
- Trees? Cows? The Sun?
31
Functionalisms
Individual:
Society:
Functionalisms
Individual: Malinowski
- Society functions to fulfil individual needs
- Food, shelter & psycological support
- Religion is to ameliorate misfortune & anxiety
- Gmelch on 'Baseball Magic"
Society: Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) and Alfred Radcliffe-Brown (1881-1955)
- Society functions to fulfil social needs
- Food, shelter & social solidarity
- Religion serves to bind people together in loyal communities
32
Functionalism
How(contemporary) cultures meet the needs of individuals and/or society:
Parts of a cultural system are interconnected:
Human diversity explained by:
Functionalism
How(contemporary) cultures meet the needs of individuals and/or society:
- Preserve/perptuate 'individual' or 'society'
Parts of a cultural system are interconnected:
- Change in one part will bring about change in other parts of the system
Human diversity explained by:
- Differences (or changes) in function
33
Key Terms
Evolutionism:
Functionalism:
Key Terms
Evolutionism:
- Secular 'Science of humanity
- Egalitarian
- All equally capable of evolution
- For example, from superstition to rationality
Functionalism:
- Looks at contemporary interrelations through detailed ethnography, vs 'arm-chair' speculation about 'origins'
- Egalitarian not 'superstition.'
- Humans are trying to fulfil individual & social 'needs' to 'maintain systems'
34
Diffusion & Meaning
Detailed fieldwork:
Each culture creates unique patterns of meaning:
Diffusion & Meaning
Detailed fieldwork:
- Like Malinowski, but with a different model!
- Any culture is partially composed of traits diffused/borrowed from other cultures
- Borrow, but make 'one's owns'
Each culture creates unique patterns of meaning:
- Anthropologists goal: get to 'the natives point of view', insiders' perspective
35
Change
Not 'equilibrium' but change:
Not function, but meaning
Change
Not 'equilibrium' but change:
- Borrowing/change results in diversity
- Not in the evolutionist sense
Not function, but meaning
- Making sense of the world, give world order & purpose
- Ideal 'needs', not material need
- Neck tie - as cultural 'trait and context
36
Diffusionism contra evolution/function
CD
Where did 'inventions' begin in the first place?
Why did some culture traits diffuse and not others?
Diffusionism contra evolution/function
CD:
- Cultures change - they are diverse - as a result of borrowing from one another; they are not independent inventions
- Diffusionism - objections by evolutionists and functionalists:
Where did 'inventions' begin in the first place?
- It all came from Egypt or Greece or India
Why did some culture traits diffuse and not others?
- And diffused at different rates
37
Interactions & Exchanges
Understanding:
What is crucial?
Interactions & Exchanges
Understanding:
- Cultural diversity is linked to the interactions and exchanges within and among cultures
What is crucial?
- Meanings for people, from their own point of view
38
Emic/Etic
Emic:
Etic:
Emic/Etic
Emic:
- Subjective understandings experienced, articulated and shared by individuals and groups. Emphasis is on the people's own point of view
Etic:
- Extension of external categories of interpretation on people's behaviour, practices & beliefs. Emphasis is on the analysts point of view, not the people she/he is describing
39
The Hau of the Gift
The Hau of the gift:
Marcel Mauss:
Compare:
The Hau of the Gift
The Hau of the gift:
- As the gift travels people pass on something of themselves with it
Marcel Mauss:
- And his essay on 'the gift'
Compare:
- Evolutionism & functionalism on Christmas or presents or Valentines presents
40
Culture is Social/Collective Comprehensive
Meaning shared by:
Not fully:
Culture is Social/Collective Comprehensive
Meaning shared by:
- Most people of the group; "this is a rave", 'This is a rugby game', 'this is a school lesson'
Not fully:
Conscious, not of all aspects
41
'Civilisation' vs 'Culture'
Some distinguish b/w the two - 'Civilisation':
'Civilisation' vs 'Culture'
Some distinguish b/w the two - 'Civilisation':
- Larger in scale
- Urban
- Monumental architecture
- Centralised government; the existence of a state
- Literacy
42
Social Anthropological Perspectives
Important not only to focus on:
Focus on:
From this perspective:
Hence the notion of:
Social Anthropological Perspectives
Important not only to focus on:
- External, objective facts
Focus on:
- 'internal' meanings
From this perspective:
- No person, or group of persons has more (or less) culture than another
Hence the notion of:
'Primitive' is no longer used
43
Cultural Relativism
Seek understanding from within:
Ideas of:
Cultural Relativism
Seek understanding from within:
- the cultures own point of view so that it (cultural practice)
Ideas of:
- Beauty can vary widely
44
External Behaviour vs Internal Action (see Keesing reading)
'External' description of behaviour:
'Internal' understanding of purposeful action:
External Behaviour vs Internal Action (see Keesing reading)
'External' description of behaviour:
- 'A guy is running around while kicking a round object'
'Internal' understanding of purposeful action:
- 'Lionel Messi is trying to score a goal and win the game'
45
Aspects of - approaches to - Internal Meaning
Rules:
Unconscious binary code:
Significance:
Aspects of - approaches to - Internal Meaning
Rules:
- Rules of soccer
Unconscious binary code:
- Players vs spectators
- Winners vs losers
Significance:
- Soccer team moves forward
- The city of Barcelona grieves
46
Learning vs Instinct
Can human behaviour be explained in terms of various instincts, drives or genetically-based propensities?
Learning vs Instinct
Can human behaviour be explained in terms of various instincts, drives or genetically-based propensities?
- NO
- Humans are born with little predetermined behaviour
47
Are there cross-cultural universals
Rules, including ideas/norms/debates:
Are there cross-cultural universals
Rules, including ideas/norms/debates:
- About how is an 'adult'
- Who you can marry
- Who you can have sex with (and where)
- Child-rearing
48
Anthropology of Economics versus Economic Anthropology
Anthropology Economics:
Economics Anthropology:
Anthropology of Economics versus Economic Anthropology
Anthropology Economics:
- Study of the field (tribe) of economics
- Its social institutions rituals, its practitioners, their identitites as 'economists', their way of knowing
Economics Anthropology:
- Every society has worked out how to provide most people with what they need for physical survival
- 'Worked out' = patterned, routine, day-to-day 'subsistence strategies' (not random)
49
Economic Anthropology
Three phases of economic activity:
Economic Anthropology
Three phases of economic activity:
1) Production
2) Exchange/distribution
3) Consumption
50
Forms of exchange:
Forms of exchange:
- Reciprocity
- Redistribution
- Market mechanism
51
Reciprocity:
Reciprocity:
- Exchange of goods, services of about the same value, b/w two or more parties
- Includes gifts
52
Generalised or Specific Reciprocity:
Generalised or Specific Reciprocity:
- Birthday preesent
- No immediate return
"It will work out"
53
Reciprocity Generalised Reciprocity:
Reciprocity Generalised Reciprocity:
- Value of the gift is not calculated, repayment time not specified
- Parents providing for children
54
Redistribution:
Redistribution:
- Flow of goods into a central place to be redistributed
- Equality is the guiding principle
- Pure communism (commune, monastery, early christianity)
- Specific government programs & services
- Potlatch
55
Market Exchange: BEM
Market Exchange:
- Buying & selling goods & services
- Prices set by supply & demand
- Exchange usually happens at specific times & places
- Money exchanged instead of (just) goods & services
- Profit motive is pure rationality
56
Production First, Exchange later
production more important for analysis than exchange:
Production First, Exchange later
production more important for analysis than exchange:
- What people give/sell and get/buy depends on what is produced in the first place
- Karl Marx: to understand exchange you have to first understand production
57
Modes of Subsistence
PP
'Worked out' = patterned, routine, day-to-day ' subsistence strategies'; it is not random:
Modes of Subsistence
PP:
- Privileges Production
'Worked out' = patterned, routine, day-to-day ' subsistence strategies'; it is not random:
- Hunter-gatherers (or gatherer-hunters) [labour]
- Horticulturalists [labour]
- Agriculturalists [land]
- Pastoralists [livestock]
- Peasants [land & labour}
- Wage labourers [labour]
58
Capitalist model as foundation of economics
Both advocates (Adam Smith) and critics (Marx) of capitalism agree/assume:
Foundation of discipline of economics:
Capitalist model as foundation of economics
Both advocates (Adam Smith) and critics (Marx) of capitalism agree/assume:
- Demand & Supply <> Scarcity
- There will never be enough
- Peoples needs/wants can never be met
Foundation of discipline of economics:
- Presumption of scarcity/supply-demand- and attendant emphasis on production - is foundation of discipline of economics
59
Scarcity and/or Affluence
Marshall Sahlins:
Scarcity and/or Affluence
Marshall Sahlins:
- Affluence: having (more than) enough to meet needs & wants
- Ways of affluence
- Produce a lot and/or
- Want less
60
Sectors of Economic Activity
GNP (Gross National Product) or GDP (Gross Domestic Product) captures the formal sector:
Economic activities that are not counted in the GNP/GDP are in the informal sector:
Sectors of Economic Activity
GNP (Gross National Product) or GDP (Gross Domestic Product) captures the formal sector:
- Formal sector often accounts for less than half the economy
Economic activities that are not counted in the GNP/GDP are in the informal sector:
- Garage sales
- Drug trade
- Birthday presents
- Illegal ('irregular') immigrant labour
61
Formalists vs Substantivists
Formalists/Formalism:
Formalists vs Substantivists
Formalists/Formalism:
- Supply & demand <> scarcity is cross-culturally valid and universal
- Bride-price <> cattle
- Desirability of brides (younger) & cattle
- 'Capitalists' underneath
- Strip away any cultural superstition
- Cost, benefit & profit
- Geertz: 'Unworkable monster'!
62
Substantivists/Substantivism
FC
Substantivists/Substantivism
FC:
- Formalism is ethnocentric (seeing others through ones own norms)
- Scarcity <> value <> scarcity
- But value is itself defined and measured by meaning
63
From Value to consumption
Where do consumption preferences come from?
From Value to consumption
Where do consumption preferences come from?
- Anthropologist can help by showing how 'needs' or 'preferences' are culturally constructed
- They depend on meaning
64
Economic Anthropology
Three phases of economic activity: PEC
Three phases of economic activity: PEC
- Production
- Exchange/Distribution
- Consumption
65
The cultural Construction of Needs & Preferences:
The cultural Construction of Needs & Preferences:
Production
<
Distribution
<
Consumption (food taboos)
66
Coca Cola in Trinidad & Tobago
Coca Cola Colonialism? Or Local Appropriation:
If purely 'economic rationality':
Coca Cola in Trinidad & Tobago
Coca Cola Colonialism? Or Local Appropriation:
- The latter, because:
- Local ownership
- 'Black sweet drinks' vs 'red sweet drinks'
- 'Black' associated w/ locals
- 'Red' with the descendants of immigrants
If purely 'economic rationality':
- Would just buy what is cheapest
67
Violence: Interpersonal
CHEIFS:
- How many dies annually as a result of violence?
Violence: Interpersonal
CHEIFS:
- Child Mistreatment
- Homicide
- Elder Abuse
- Intimate partner assault
- Family
- Self-Harm
How many dies annually as a result of violence?
- 1.3 million
68
Violence: Structural
Legal systems that may support violence:
Inequalities:
Violence: Structural
Legal systems that may support violence:
- 'Honour' killings
- Condones domestic abuse
- Human Rights Violations
Inequalities:
- The wealth of some 85 people in the world exceeds that of the poorest 3.5 billion
- The richest 1% of adults own 46% of the worlds wealth
- Half the global population have just 1% of the worlds wealth
69
Violence: War & Conflict
From 3600 BC-1992:
1945-1992:
Violence: War & Conflict
From 3600 BC-1992:
- Some 3500 major wars
- 10,500 minor wars
- One billion people killed in combat
1945-1992:
- 150-300 wars
- 100 to 150 million deaths
- Not one day of peace
70
Violence: Indicators
Uppsala Conflict Data Program: Department of Peace and Conflict Research:
Violence: Indicators
Uppsala Conflict Data Program: Department of Peace and Conflict Research:
- look up url
- 2014: 126 0 59 fatalities
- 1989-2014: 2 million fatalities
- 1986: USD $660 billion on arms while 600 million malnourished
- 2016: USD &1.57 trillion on arms while 795 million are malnourished
71
Contexts & Meanings
Practiced in a number and variety of:
Warfare does not equal:
Important to examine:
Overall:
Contexts & Meanings
Practiced in a number and variety of:
- Social relationships (like exchange and trading are)
Warfare does not equal:
- breakdown of the social order
Important to examine:
- Context of violence
Overall:
- The context is cultural
72
Three characteristics of ethnographic description:
Three characteristics of ethnographic description:
- It is interpretive
- What it is interpretive of is the flow of social discourse
- The interpreting involved consists of trying to rescue 'said' of such discourse from its perishing occasions and fix it in perusable terms"
73
Subjects
In other words, causes ultimately elude ethnographers:
Subjects
In other words, causes ultimately elude ethnographers:
- It is the meanings of experience that comprise our subject
74
Resource Competition
Explanation of war as a result of competition for resources: FLAMS
Resource Competition
Explanation of war as a result of competition for resources: FLAMS
- Food
- Land
- Agriculture
- Marine
- Slaves
75
Yanomamo
Napoleon Changnon (1938)
- Yanomamo:
- In the view of Changnon, amoung the Yanomamo survival of the fittist means:
- Harris:
- Changnon:
Yanomamo
Napoleon Changnon (1938)
Yanomamo:
- The Firerce People (1968)
In the view of Changnon, amoung the Yanomamo survival of the fittist means:
- Survival of the fittest means survival of the most 'brutally' competitive
Harris:
- Yanomamo fought over lack of protein
Changnon:
- Control over 'women' and 'sovereignty'
76
War as Politics
External trigger in:
War as Politics
External trigger in:
- "Social organisation", rather than material resource competition
- Vengeance
- Protest
- Theft
- Insult
77
Protest:
Protest:
- Rebellions
- Insurrections
- Insurgencies
78
Protesting
DOR:
Land inequalities:
'Free' Trade Agreement:
Protesting
DOR:
- Dictatorships
- Oppression
- Racism
Land inequalities:
- Particularly evident in insurgencies, civil wars and insurgencies in Latin America
'Free' Trade Agreement:
- Rise in Zapatista movement in Chiapas, Southern Mexico in response to NAFTA
79
Insults:
Insults:
| - Varies as a cause of war & conflict
80
A Nuclear Age
Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD/s):
1945-1990: US built 70,000 nuclear warheads:
A Nuclear Age
Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD/s):
- Biological
- Chemical
- Nuclear
1945-1990: US built 70,000 nuclear warheads:
- 2014: 10,145 nuclear weapons
- 2018: 14175 nuclear weapons
- 1986: 64449 nuclear weapons
81
WMD Ethnography
Hugh Gusterston:
WMD Ethnography
Hugh Gusterston:
- People of the Bomb
- Nuclear Rites
82
The Nunuku Code:
The Nunuku Code:
- For 500 years the Moriori of the Chatham Islands, Rekohu, lived in peace, having abolished war under Nunukus Law of Peace
- Kokotehi Trust
83
The Ethnographic Record
Ethnographic records illustrates that war & conflict is:
In nuclear age these cultural practices now carry a very real:
The Ethnographic Record
Ethnographic records illustrates that war & conflict is:
- Not a universal inevitable for of violence, but instead a series of cultural practices, responses and ideologies
In nuclear age these cultural practices now carry a very real:
- Existential risk to humanity & its cultural diversity
