ANTHRLCUL 101 - Exam 2

Question 1

Taxonomy

Answer 1

A system of classification to organize, rank, and categorize various life forms based on characteristics that was originally based on religious creationism before gradually developing with the discovery of genetic evolution. (Great Chain of Being)

Question 2

Catastrophism

Answer 2

A modifying concept to creationism that great natural disasters, like floods or fires, were deliberately sent by God to eliminate ancient species so that God may recreate them into what is now our contemporary species.
Ex. Noah’s Ark

This concept was created due to the discovery of fossils proving the existence of change over time that contradicted creationism.

Question 3

Uniformitarianism

Answer 3

Natural forces at work today also explain past events.

Sir Charles Lyell (geologist) argues that natural forces gradually change the surface of the earth over time.

Question 4

Evolution

Answer 4

The process by which species adapt over time in response to their changing environment.

Charles Darwin focused on the concept of “descent with modification” that all beings share a common ancestry and change over time. This is further supported by his research on evolution through natural selection.

Question 5

Natural Selection

Answer 5

The process by which the life forms that are best suited to survive and reproduce in a particular environment do so in greater numbers than other members of the same population.

Differential reproductive success (with competition for mates); requires variation within a population; operates on phenotype (internal and external)

Adaptive traits become prominent whilst maladaptive traits are eliminated from the gene pool over time.

Question 6

Genetics

Answer 6

The study of genes and heredity that helps us understand the cause of biological variation.

Mendel and his Pea Plants (1850): Mendel crossbred 7 different pea plants that had variations in their traits and discovered that traits are inherited as discrete units with dominant and recessive traits. This disproved the popular “Paint Pot Theory” that explained human genetics as a blend of traits from both parents with more physically evident traits being understood as coming from the parent with “stronger blood.”

Question 7

Dominant and Recessive Traits

Answer 7

Dominant traits are always expressed through the phenotype when present on the connected allele while the recessive trait is a less prevalent trait that is only expressed if both connected alleles are recessive. Recessive alleles can be carried through genes without displaying a physical presence.

Question 8

Heterozygous

Answer 8

Different alleles for a trait, dominant or recessive (Yy)

Question 9

Homozygous

Answer 9

Same alleles for a trait, dominant or recessive (YY or yy)

Question 10

Allele

Answer 10

A variant form of a gene that has a half taken from each biological parent to determine genotypes and resulting phenotypes.

Question 11

Phenotype

Answer 11

Expressed physical characteristics of an organism (those genes that are expressed)

Question 12

Genotype

Answer 12

An organism’s genetic, hereditary make-up that determines corresponding phenotypes that will be expressed

Question 13

Independent Assortment

Answer 13

One of Mendel’s principles that states that genes for different traits are inherited independently during the formation of gametes.

Question 14

Mutation

Answer 14

Changes in DNA molecules that act as the source of new biochemical forms; can be neutral, adaptive, or maladaptive; can become adaptive when an environment changes

Question 15

Random Genetic Drift

Answer 15

Random changes to gene variant frequency that occur by chance, usually in a small population

Question 16

Gene Flow

Answer 16

Populations within a species interbreed and pass their genetic material to one another, which tends to decrease differences between populations and prevent speciation.

Question 17

Sickle Cell Anemia

Answer 17

Hemoglobin carries blood from the lungs to the rest of the body through our red blood cells. Sickle cell anemia occurs in homozygous recessive genes for Hb^S. This results in crescent or sickle-shaped blood cells that are unable to properly store oxygen, which can cause a deadly burden on the heart. This allele persists in areas like West Africa, India, and the Mediterranean despite being maladaptive due to its protective nature against malaria as malaria parasites cannot thrive in the blood of heterozygotes.

Question 18

Race and Genetic Variation

Answer 18

Race is not biological; it is an entirely social construct. Evidence from genetic studies shows that 94% of physical variation lies within racial groups, not between them. Racial classification is a complicated political and social process.

Question 19

Environment and Skin Color

Answer 19

Melanin, a chemical substance manufactured in the skin that is responsible for pigmentation, is more adaptive in environments with intense solar radiation as it protects humans from the damaging effects of UV radiation. It is maladaptive in environments with little sun exposure as it prevents the absorption of UV, which stimulates the manufacture of vitamin D, which is necessary to absorb calcium (rickets can occur where the bones soften and deform).

Question 20

Thomson’s Nose Rule

Answer 20

Long noses are adaptive in cold and arid environments as the blood vessels in the nose warm inhaled air to protect the brain from intensely cold air and membranes in the nose add moisture to the air as it is breathed in. Thus, there is an association between nose length and average annual temperatures.

Question 21

Bergmann’s Rule

Answer 21

Average body size is greater in colder environments; stocky bodies conserve heat; larger bodies shed heat efficiently.

Question 22

Allen’s Rule

Answer 22

Relative size of protruding body parts (ears, tails, limbs, fingers, toes) increases with temperature.
(ex. Arctic hares have shorter ears and limbs compared to jackrabbits.)

Question 23

Lactose Tolerance

Answer 23

Lactase persistence (LP) means that the enzyme necessary to digest lactose persists despite being in adulthood. Lactose intolerance occurs when lactase non-persistence (LNP) occurs as humans lose the lactase enzyme. LP is also more prevalent in societies that rely more heavily on dairy consumption.

Question 24

U.S. Census Categories Over Time

Answer 24

The definition of race and means of racial categorization continued to change based on population size and the social opinion of races from the perspective of white government census workers, which goes to show just how subjective and fluid race is. This was done to single out specific populations and to create classifications that are most beneficial to the US government.

Question 25

Race/Racism

Answer 25

A group of human beings distinguished by physical traits, blood types, genetic code patterns, or genetically inherited characteristics. The belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities, and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race.

Question 26

Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow

Answer 26

The idea that penal policy (especially the war on drugs) unjustly targets black men and creates disadvantages for the black community by stripping members of full citizenship rights.

Question 27

Racial Caste

Answer 27

A stigmatized racial group locked into an inferior position by law and custom

Question 28

Mass Incarceration

Answer 28

“Mass incarceration refers not only to the criminal justice system but also to the larger web of laws, rules, policies, and customs that control those labeled criminals both in and out of prison. Once released from prison, people enter a hidden underworld of legalized discrimination and permanent social exclusion. They are members of America’s new undercaste.”

Question 29

Prison Time

Answer 29

With Reagan's anti-drug policies, prison sentences were increased for drug charges. This was specifically targeted toward black communities that were associated with crack use.

Question 30

Prison Label

Answer 30

Legal discrimination against formerly incarcerated populations affects employment, housing, education, public benefits, voting, etc.

Question 31

Slavery → Emancipation → Reconstruction → Populism → Jim Crow → Civil Rights → Mass Incarceration → War on Drugs → Police Violence

Answer 31

A repetitive cycle of social/political/economic progress for the equal rights of the black community that continuously faced development and backlash. The elite white class continued to drive wedges between the poor white class and black slaves to prevent allianced uprisings in response to monumental legislative achievements that should provide equitable opportunities for the black community if properly implemented. Various laws, conditions, and enforcements were selectively applied to the black community in an attempt to maintain white supremacy.

Question 32

Vagrancy Laws

Answer 32

Made it a criminal offense not to work, specifically targeting the black community that struggled to find employment following slavery abolishment. This would contribute to incarceration, which funneled the black economy into an inescapable cycle of convict leasing as a new form of labor enslavement.

Question 33

Convict Laws, Convict Leasing

Answer 33

Enacted to allow Southern states to lease prisoners to private railways, mines, and large plantations while prisoners earned no pay and faced inhumane, dangerous, and often deadly work conditions.

Question 34

Segregation

Answer 34

Separation of people based on racial, ethnic, or other differences.

Question 35

Housing, Red Lining, and Net Worth (from Race: The Power of an Illusion)

Answer 35

Housing originally had significant racial barriers to prevent nonwhites from gaining housing residency in designated white neighborhoods. After the Fair Housing Act was passed to prevent racial discrimination, black communities began to become immersed in previously white-dominated neighborhoods. As a result, real estate owners would encourage white families to sell their homes at low rates so that those properties could be sold at inflated prices to black families. With the gradual absence of white families, the neighborhoods became a “black space” as the developments of wealth, education, etc. associated with white privilege would also leave. The wealth gap and net worth gap continue to grow as the inequality of conditions continues to persist over generations. A colorblind society does not mean that it is one of equality as the privilege of wealth, education, opportunity, etc. are passed along. The net worth disparity is unchanged as white families have substantially more wealth than black families. The median net worth of black households is approximately 1/8 that of white families.

Question 36

Leith Mullings, “The Sojourner Syndrome: Race, Class, and Gender in Health and Illness”

Answer 36

Intersectionality: The Harlem Birth Right Project wanted to account for the ways that race, class, and gender were interlocking, relational categories that all structured access to resources like employment, housing, recreation, health care, and health itself. Sojourner Syndrome: the term to express the combined effects and joint influence of race, class, and gender in structuring risk for African American women that also represents a survival strategy for fostering the reproduction and continuity of the black community Stress and Health: the research discovered exposure to a multitude of stressors such as housing, employment, incarceration of family members, exposure to toxins, etc. that negatively impact health and are disproportionately experienced by marginalized racial groups Black women take on additional care labor to help their families survive in these conditions, and that labor has costs (including health).

Question 37

Film: Toxic: A Black Woman’s Story

Answer 37

There was a news story of a 12 year-old boy shot and killed on TV that she dismissed to prevent stress. She later had to prevent her son from going to spend time with his friends because of her worry for his safety. Racially based concerns became another issue when Michael’s dreadlocks were supposedly a violation of his wrestling matches despite other boys not having the same enforcements imposed. Furthermore, when discussing the sentencing of a black teenager’s unfortunate situation compared to the sentencing of a rape case, her coworker continued to make excuses to justify the decision and commented on where he was from. During breakfast, she expressed her stress about the overwhelming work she had before proceeding to take on more responsibilities for her family. When going to the doctor due to concerning abdominal pains during her pregnancy, her condition was disregarded and she was told that she was overreacting. She later went into premature labor and lost the baby.

Question 38

Primatology

Answer 38

The study of nonhuman primates, including their behavior and social life, to better understand human evolution and early human behavior (includes apes, monkeys, tarsiers, lemurs, and lorises). Standard against which we assess human uniqueness; provides insights into our own evolution; share anatomy, brain structure, genetics, biochemistry, and a “common ancestor”.

Question 39

Homology

Answer 39

Similarities/traits inherited from a common ancestor

Question 40

Analogy

Answer 40

Similarities that arise not from shared ancestry but as a result of convergent evolution, similar selective forces resulting in similar adaptations

Question 41

Terrestrial

Answer 41

A species primarily living on the land.

Question 42

Arboreal

Answer 42

A species primarily living in forestry.

Question 43

Trends in Primate Evolution

Answer 43

Grasping Abilities (opposable thumbs, nails not claws, social bonds through grooming) Reliance on Vision over Smell (depth perception, color vision) Reliance on Touch over Smell (opposable thumbs) Long Life Span (humans ~80 yrs, chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas ~40 yrs) Brain Size and Complexity (larger brain size and complexity relative to body size, especially related to memory, thought, and association) Parental Investment (infrequent birth to one infant, extensive motherly care, slow development with long learning periods) Sociality (social, live in groups)

Question 44

Primate Taxonomy

Answer 44

Biological classification of primates based on homologies Strepsirrhines (lemurs, lorises) and Haplorrhines (tarsiers, monkeys, apes)

Question 45

Platyrrhines (New World monkeys)

Answer 45

Arboreal, prehensile (grasping) tails, mostly diurnal

Question 46

Prehensile Tail

Answer 46

Tail has muscles capable of grasping abilities when moving through forestry

Question 47

Catarrhines (Old World monkeys)

Answer 47

Rough patches of skin on buttocks adapted to sitting on ground and on rough branches Arboreal (smaller, agile) or arboreal/terrestrial (larger, display greater sexual morphism) Ex. Mandrills have greater size differences between males and females with different facial coloring.

Question 48

Apes – gibbons, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos

Answer 48

Diet of leaves, bark, tree gums, flowers, fruits, insects, meats Locomotion of either brachiation or knuckle-walking

Question 49

Gibbons

Answer 49

light, agile, small body; experts at brachiation; not strongly dimorphic; live in primary groups with permanently bonded males and females and their pre-adolescent children

Question 50

Orangutans

Answer 50

strong sexual dimorphism; largely arboreal; least sociable of great apes; social units include females and their pre-adolescent young

Question 51

Gorillas

Answer 51

largely terrestrial but sleep in low nest; marked sexual dimorphism; organized into troops of 10-20 members with a silverback male leader, females, and offspring

Question 52

Chimpanzees vs Bonobos

Answer 52

Chimpanzees: live in tropical Africa; hunt small mammals (especially monkeys); very social; organize into communities of about 50 with females migrating out to mate and competition for dominance; very vocal; use gestures, facial expressions, calls; coalitionary behavior among male chimpanzees (trade grooming and meat for coalitionary support, cooperation to raid neighboring groups for territory) Bonobos: similar to the common chimpanzees in appearance but slightly smaller; peaceful, female-centered communities with strong social bonds among females and mother-son bonds; shared food, sex, masturbation to avoid conflict (still infrequent birth)

Question 53

Shared Ape Traits

Answer 53

Larger body size, longer lifespan, long intervals between births, upright posture, flatter face, no tails

Question 54

Brachiation

Answer 54

A hand-over-hand movement that allows swinging movement through forestry

Question 55

Sexual Dimorphism

Answer 55

Marked differences in physical biology between males and females of the same species.

Question 56

Knuckle Walking

Answer 56

Moving around in a form of quadrupedal walking with the body’s weight on bent knuckles along the ground

Question 57

Coalitionary Hunting

Answer 57

Apes (mostly chimpanzees) working together with other apes to hunt together and form attacks on neighboring competition; allows for the expansion of territory and raids for food

Question 58

Film: Life in the Trees

Answer 58

A general survey of the primates, from the more primitive to the more developed.

Question 59

Hominin

Answer 59

A member of the human lineage after its split from ancestral chimps; all human species that have ever existed, including extinct ones.

Question 60

Features of Hominins

Answer 60

Bipedalism, brain size, teeth patterns, and tool use.

Question 61

Bipedalism

Answer 61

The ability to use two-footed, upright locomotion.

Question 62

Foramen Magnum

Answer 62

The hole at the base of the skull through which the spinal cord joins the brain. (forward placement for bipedalism)

Question 63

Lumbar Curve

Answer 63

Balances the weight of the trunk over the lower limbs. Curvature of the spine

Question 64

Bipedalism, Brain Size, and Birth

Answer 64

Bipedalism precedes brain size changes but brain size increased during hominid evolution, especially in the later parts of it. Upright bipedalism limits the width of the pelvic opening and the birth canal. Too wide of a pelvis will negatively impact bodily support and posture, but too narrow of a pelvis inhibits birth.

Question 65

Hominin Teeth and Diet

Answer 65

Chimpanzees have sharper, pointed canines with large back teeth for heavy chewing. Humans have smaller teeth and back molars that reduced over time through evolution due to food processing and increased meat consumption.

Question 66

Ardipethecus

Answer 66

Ardipethecus (beginning of hominin line) Lived in woods and grasslands; ape-like in size and anatomy; small canine teeth; transitional pelvis and feet for arboreal climbing and bipedal locomotion; omnivorous diet (Ardi)

Question 67

Australopithecus

Answer 67

Australopithecus (newer in hominin line) Australopithecus anamensis (4.2-3.9 mya) Australopithecus afarensis (3.8-3.0 mya) “Lucy” (3.2 mya): 40% of skeleton preserved; ape-like skull and upper body, shoulder blades suiting to climbing, lower body confirmed bipedalism “Lucy’s Baby” (3.3 mya): toddler, 3 years old at death Cranial capacity barely surpassing chimp average; ape-like premolars but reduced canines and large molars could process hard, brittle foods; large, flaring cheekbones also indicate chewing; marked sexual dimorphism; pelvis and limb bones indisputably hominin; striding bipedalism, infant dependency

Question 68

Homo

Answer 68

Begins to reproductively isolate close to 2.8 mya Homo habilis (“able man”) was assumed to be the first with the tool making ability (before Au. gahri was discovered). Homo erectus (1.9-0.5 mya) had a large cranial capacity of 900 cm3 with a modern body shape and height, but rugged, robust bones and large brow ridge. Longer, taller legs for stalking and hunting endurance; specialized tools (Acheulean tools); smaller jaws and back teeth for chewing Control of fire 800,000 years ago for protection, warmth, food processing

Question 69

Gracile

Answer 69

Au. Africanus (3.5-2.5 mya), Au. Sediba (3.5-1.78 mya) Slight, delicate features; less rugged; smaller teeth and faces; smaller cranial capacity; largely vegetarian diets supplemented occasionally with meat that required extensive grinding and crushing

Question 70

Robust

Answer 70

Parathropus robustus (1.9-1.0 mya), parathropus boisei (2.3-1.4 mya) Heavy, robust features; large, strong, sturdy bones, muscles, and teeth; sagittal crest, mammoth back teeth

Question 71

Sagittal Crest

Answer 71

A ridge of bone running lengthwise along the midline of the top of the skull.

Question 72

Zygomatic Arches

Answer 72

The bridge of cheekbone extending around front to the upper jawbone.

Question 73

Oldowan

Answer 73

Au. garhi (“surprise”) was discovered to have used one of the earliest tool manufacturing methods (earlier thought to be a feature of genus homo). Stone tools consisting of flakes and core to process game carcasses and process food (pounding, breaking, bashing, etc.)

Question 74

Acheulean

Answer 74

Core chipped bilaterally and symmetrically (indicates planning) Flat, oval hand axe; cleavers; stone picks; sharp flakes; signs of language

Question 75

Mousterian

Answer 75

Specialized stone tools incorporated with other materials are composed of multiple components and indicate role specialization.

Question 76

Meat and Social/physical Change

Answer 76

Gender division of labor (males hunting to provide for their female mate and offspring) Pair bonding (a single male and female would exclusively pair with meat provision stabilizing the partnership) Paternal investment (mother cares for young while father provides for family) Increase in brain and body size (high caloric value of meat likely fuels the ability of the brain to grow) Population growth and territorial expansion

Question 77

Fire and Social/physical Change

Answer 77

Ability to cook food Used for social gathering Decrease in chewing muscle size due to food processing

Question 78

Neandertals

Answer 78

Found in Europe and Asia between 130,000 and 28,000 years ago. Stocky, short limbs (adaptations to the cold); broad faces, large front teeth, large brow ridges; cranial capacity surpassing the modern average Elaborate Mousterian tools with standardization suggesting occupational specialization.

Question 79

“Cave Man” Stereotype

Answer 79

There is a stereotype of Neandertal’s being uncivilized, unintelligent cavemen that were primitive savages that took a step back in evolution.

Question 80

Interbreeding (and Denisovans)

Answer 80

Denisovans are cousins of Neandertals found to live in Siberia and Asia between 400,000-50,000 years ago that interbred with Neandertals.

Question 81

Significance of Burial

Answer 81

Neandertals exhibited compassion and empathy as there was evidence of survival from past injuries (implying support from a community), care for those with disabilities, burial rituals for the deceased.

Question 82

Why AMHs Replaced Neandertals

Answer 82

Little evidence of innovation in tools (may indicate a hesitance or reluctance to change) Little evidence of trade or exchange with distant groups or AMHs (anatomically modern humans) Climate change Likely inbreeding in small groups (general isolation from other groups)

Question 83

Anatomically Modern Humans (AMHs)

Answer 83

Evolve from an African version of Homo heidelbergensis by around 300,000 years ago Major migration out of Africa around 70,000 years ago (not the first spread out of Africa, but the only one that appears to have left descendants that survive today) Tall, with large, rounded skulls and the cranial capacity we possess today

Question 84

Art and Creativity, “Behavioral Modernity”

Answer 84

Symbolic thought, cultural creativity Burial practices, abstract thinking (tool manufacture), bodily adornment, art (cave paintings) Contact with outsiders was a key element

Question 85

Hominin Trends over Time

Answer 85

Taller, longer limbs, larger cranial capacity, more rounded head, narrower nasal bones, more gracile jaws and teeth, flatter face, less prominent brow ridge, chin formation Increasing sophistication and specialization in tool manufacture, language, and culture

Question 86

Jeremy DeSilva, First Steps: How Upright Walking Made Us Human

Answer 86

Updating depictions of hominin evolution: DeSilva argues that bipedalism was a crucial step in human evolution, allowing our ancestors to become efficient walkers and runners, and freeing up our hands for tool use and other activities. Laetoli Footprints: Fossilized footprints found in Laetoli, Tanzania proved that early hominids walked upright and in groups approximately 3.6 million years ago. Bipedalism and Empathy: Bipedalism allowed individuals more capabilities, allowing for the assistance of others.