Applied Anatomy and Physiology Flashcards
All topics from Anatomy & Physiology (108 cards)
1
Q
Health
A
A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being & not merely the absence of disease/infirmity
2
Q
Fitness
A
Ability to meet/cope with the demands of the environment
3
Q
Structure of heart
A
Atrium - smaller
ventricles - thicker
muscular walls
septum
left side bigger - pump to body
4
Q
Arteries and veins
A
Vena cava - deoxy blood to right atrium
pulmonary vein - oxy blood to left atrium
pulmonary artery - leaves right ventricle with deoxy blood
aorta - leaves left ventricle with oxy blood
5
Q
Valves
A
tricuspid - right atrium & right ventricle
bicuspid - left atrium & left ventricle
semi-lunar - right ventricle & pulmonary artery/ left ventricle & aorta
6
Q
Why are valves important
A
Regulate blood flow & prevents backflow
7
Q
Myogenic
A
heart initiates/stimulates its own contraction
8
Q
cardiac conduction system
A
1.electrical impulse to SAN
2.impulse spreads through atria walls,contract,blood to ventricles
3.impulse passes through AVN which delay transmission of impulse to enable atria to fully contract
4.impulse passes through specialised fibres-bundle of his-located in septum
5.both spreads into 2 smaller bundles-purkinje fibres-spread through ventricles contract
9
Q
Sympathetic nervous system
A
Stimualtes heart to beat faster
10
Q
Parasympathetic nervous system
A
Returns heart to resting level
11
Q
Central nervous system
A
Brain & spinal cord
12
Q
Peripheral nervous system
A
Nerve cells that transmit info to & from CNS
13
Q
Cardiac control system
A
in medulla oblongata
14
Q
Chemoreceptors
A
Sense chemical changes in blood, found in carotid arteries & aortic arch
increase CO2=increase HR
15
Q
Baroreceptors
A
Sense change in blood pressure, contain nerve endings that respond to stretching of arterial walls, change in set point sends signals to medulla
increase arterial pressure=decrease HR
16
Q
Proprioceptors
A
Detect movement, sensory nerve endings in muscles/tendons/joints
increased muscle movement=increase HR
17
Q
Hormonal control-anticipatory rise
A
Release of adrenaline prior to exercise, from sympathetic & cardiac nerves helps prepare body for exercise-increase O2 supply to muscles, stimulated SAN=increase in speed & force of contraction
18
Q
Stoke volume
A
Volume of blood pumped out of heart in a single contraction (70ml)
19
Q
Factors affecting stroke volume
A
Venous return-increase VR=increase SV
Elasticity of cardiac fibres-more stretch=greater contraction force (increased ejection fraction)
Contractility of cardiac tissue-greater contractility=greater contraction force
Starling’s law-increased venous return->greater diastolic filling->cardiac muscle is stretched->more forceful contraction->increased ejection fraction
20
Q
Stroke volume in response to exercise
A
increases as intensity increases up to 40-60% of max effort, then plateaus ventricles don’t have enough time to refill
21
Q
heart rate
A
Number of times heart beats per min (72bpm)
22
Q
heart rate in response to exercise
A
Increases-how much depends on intensity, increases in direct proportion to intensity, regular aerobic training=cardiac hypertrophy &/ bradycardia
23
Q
Maximal heart rate
A
Max HR=220-age
24
Q
Cardiac output
A
Volume of blood pumped out of the heart per min, cardiac output (Q)=stroke volume(SV) X heart rate(HR)
25
cardiac output in response to exercise
Increases due to increase in SV&HR - until maximum at rest doesn't change max cardiac output changes-transport more blood to working muscles-distribution changes
26
Heart disease-coronary heart disease
coronary arteries become blocked/narrowed by fatty deposits (atheroma) atherosclerosis, arteries become narrowed & cannot deliver O2 to heart - angina,
if atheroma breaks off can cause blood clot-cuts of blood supply leading to heart attack, regular exercise reduces risk
27
High blood pressure
BP-force exerted by blood against blood vessel walls,
High BP puts extra strain on arteries & heart increases risk of heart attack/heart failure/stroke/dementia
regular aerobic fitness reduces risk
28
Cholesterol levels
BAD LDL-Low Density Lipoprotein - transport cholesterol in blood tissues
GOOD HDL-High Density Lipoprotein - transport excess cholesterol to liver where its broken down
Regular activity lowers LDL & increases HDL
29
Stroke
Blood supply to part of brain is cut off
causes cells to die
Ischemic stroke - blood clot (more common)
Haemorrhagic stroke - weakened blood vessel bursts
Regular exercise reduces risk by 27%
30
Cardiovascular drift
Occurs 20mins after steady state exercise
loss of fluid after 20 mins through sweating
50% of blood vol of plasms - plasma lost from blood
blood becomes more viscous, loss of plasma
blood harder to pump around body-reduces SV, HR must increase to maintain Q
31
Vascular system
Blood vessels that carry oxygen & nutrients to tissues & take away waste products
32
Pulmonary
deoxy-blood from heart to lungs
oxy blood from lungs to heart
33
Systemic
oxy-blood to body
return of deoxy blood to heart
34
Veins
thinner muscle/elastic layer
wider lumen
valves
35
Arteries
Thicker elastic layer to cope with higher bp
smaller lumen
smooth inner layer
no valves
36
Capillaries
1 cell thick, wide enough to fit 1 rbc through at once-slows down blood flow & ensures increase chance of diffusion larger SA, moist to increase rate of diffusion
37
Flow of blood
Heart→arteries→arterioles→capillaries→venules→veins→heart
38
Blood pressure during exercise
Increase in systolic pressure-increase SV and force of contraction, decrease in diastolic pressure-vasodilation
39
Systolic pressure
Force of blood from contraction
40
Diastolic pressure
Lower pressure as ventricles relax
41
venous return
Return of blood to right side of heart, increases during exercise-starling's law
42
Mechanisms of venous return
Skeletal muscle pump-muscles press on nearby veins when contracting causing pump effects & squeeze blood towards heart
Respiratory pump-changes in pressure in thoracic & abdominal cavities compress nearby veins & assist blood flow back to heart
Pocket valves-blood only flows 1 direction
Gravity
Suction pressure/pump action of heart-smooth muscle squeeze blood
Systolic BP increases-venous return increases
43
Haemoglobin
Carries 4 oxygen molecules when partial pressure of oxygen in blood is high
44
Oxyhaemoglobin
transports oxygen to tissue
45
Myoglobin
Oxygen stored as myoglobin in muscles-has higher affinity for oxygen & will store for mitochondria-aerobic respiration site
46
Bohr shift
During exercise, S-shaped curve moves to right cause muscles require more oxygen
47
Oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve
Dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin to muscles occurs more readily
increase in BP
Blood & muscle temp increases so oxygen dissociates more readily
Partial pressure of CO2 increases
as CO2 levels rise, oxygen will dissociate quicker due to diffusion theory
pH
more CO2 will lower pH & drop in pH cause oxygen to dissociate quicker
48
Redistribution of blood
Skeletal muscle require more O2 so blood is directed to them
Blood→brain&kindeys stays same
more blood to heart
more blood to skin, energy is needed to cool body down
49
Redirecting of blood is
Vascular shunt mechanism
50
Blood pressure & flow controlled by
Vasomotor centre in medulla oblongata
51
Control of blood flow
Chemoreceptors-stimulate vasomotor centre, redistribute blood through vasodilation/vasoconstriction
sympathetic stimulation increases-vasodilation occurs & blood flow reduces
sympathetic stimulation decreases-vasodilation occurs
52
Pre-capillary sphincters
Tiny rings of muscle at opening of capillaries contract-blood flow constricted
53
Purpose of vasodilation/vasoconstriction
Ensures more blood to skin during exercise to regulate body temp & get rid of heat through radiation, evaporation & sweating removes waste products more blood to heart
increases blood supply
54
Atrio-venous difference (A-VO2 Diff)
Difference between oxygen content of atrial blood arriving at muscles & venous blood leaving muscles
at rest-A-VO2 diff is low
during exercise-increases, affects gaseous exchange at alveoli so more O2 is taken in & more CO2 is removed
training increases A-VO2 diff as trained performers can extract greater amount of oxygen from blood
55
A-VO2 diff - adaptations to body resulting in training effect
Increase O2 content in atrial blood due to more RBC/haemoglobin/O2 carrying capacity of blood/increases gaseous exchange at muscles(capillarisation/increase in blood supply/SA/Gaseous exchange at muscles/more myoglobin/Store more O2 in muscle
Less
56
Respiration
taking in of oxygen & removal of carbon dioxide
57
What does respiration include
Ventilation
Gas exchange
Transport of gases
Metabolic reactions
58
Passage of air
nose→pharynx→larynx→trachea→bronchi→bronchioles→alveoli
59
Gas exchange
Movement of O2 from air into blood & CO2 from blood into air
Movement of gas molecules from an area of high concentration/partial pressure, to an area of low concentration/partial pressure
60
Adaptation of alveoli
Thin walls-1cell thick, short diffusion path
Extensive capillary network surrounding it
Large surface area-greater uptake of O2
Moist-gases dissolve in moisture helping them to pass across the gas exchange surface
61
Inhaling
Intercostal muscles contract→ribs move up & out→diaphragm contracts & pulls flat→thoratic cavity gets larger & pressure in lungs decreases to suck air in
62
Exhaling
Intercostal muscles relax→ribcage moves down & in→diaphragm relaxes & rises to dome shape→thoracic cavity gets smaller→lungs increase→pushing air out
63
Muscles used at rest during inspiration
Diaphragm external intercostal muscles
64
Muscles used at rest during expiration
Diaphragm
External intercostal muscles
65
Muscles used during exercise during inspiration
Diaphragm
External intercostal
Sternocleidomastoid
Scalene
Pectoralis minor
66
Muscles used during external during expiration
Internal intercostal
Abdominals
67
Lung volume at rest
Inspire & expire approx 0.5L of air per breath
68
Tidal volume
Volume of air breathed in OR out per breath increases during exercise
69
Inspiratory reserve volume
Vol of air that can be forcible inspired after a normal breath
70
What happens to tidal volume during exercise
Increases
71
What happens to inspiratory reserve volume during exercise
Decreases
72
What happens to expiratory reserve volume during exercise
Slight decrease during exercise
73
Expiratory reserve volume
Volume of air that can be forcibly expired after a normal breath
74
Residual volume
Volume of air the remains in the lungs after maximal expiration
75
What happens to residual volume during exercise
Remains the same during exercise
76
Minute ventiliation
Volume of air breathed in or out per minute
77
What happens to minute ventilation during exercise
Big increase during exercise
78
Minute Ventilation equation
Minute ventilation=no. of breaths per minute x tidal volume
79
Spirometer
Instrument used to measure breathing
traces breathing movements & translates them into graphical representations
80
Gas exchange in alveoli
Partial pressure of O2 in alveoli is higher than in capillaries, O2 has been removed by the working muscles as its has lower pp than capillaries
bigger the gradient, faster diffusion rate of O2 will be, until pp is equal
81
Gas exchange at muscles
PP of O2 is lower at tissues than in capillaries, O2 diffuses into tissues
Until equilibrium is reached
82
Regulation of pulmonary ventilation during exercise
Neural, hormonal & chemical control
83
What does sympathetic nervous system do to breathing rate
Increases it
84
What does parasympathetic nervous system do to breathing rate
Decreases it
85
Where is respiratory control centre located (RCC)
Medulla oblongata
86
What does the RCC do
Controls rate & depth of breathing, uses neural & chemical control
87
Ventilation at rest
1.Increased concentration of CO2 in blood, stimulates RCC to increase respiratory rate
2.Inspiratory centre sends nerve impulses via phrenic nerve to inspiratory muscles, causing contraction
3.Last for around 2s, impulse stops &passive expiration occurs due to elastic recoil of lungs
88
Ventilation during exercise
1.Changes in blood acidity detected by chemoreceptors in carotid artery & aortic arch
2.Chemoreceptors send impulses to RCC, sends nerve impulse via phrenic nerve to cause inspiratory muscle to contract more& stimulate more inspiratory muscle e.g. sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, pectoralis minor
89
Mechanical factors - proprioceptors
Located in joints & muscles, respond to increased movement & tell RCC to increase ventilation
90
Baroreceptors
Decrease in blood pressure detected in aorta & carotid arteries, results in increased breathing rate
91
Stretch receptors
During exercise, lungs are stretched more, they prevent over-inflation of lungs by sending impulses to expiratory centre & down intercostal nerve to expiratory muscles
92
Inspiration summary
Receptors->RCC->phrenic nerve->diaphragm & external intercostals->increased rate & depths of breathing
93
Expiration summary
Receptors->RCC->intercostal nerve->abdominals & internal intercostals->increased expiration
94
Impact of smoking
Causes irritation of trachea & bronchi
reduces lung function & increases breathlessness, caused by swelling & narrowing of lung airways
Smoke damages cilia
Excess mucus builds up->smokers cough
damage alveoli, walls break down & join together forming larger spaces than normal->reduces efficiency of gas exchange
increased risk of COPD
95
How does smoking affect oxygen transportaion
Carbon monoxide from cigarettes combines with haemoglobin in RBC, more readily than O2, reduces O2 carrying capacity of blood, increases breathlessness during exercise
96
Slow twitch (type I)
Slow oxidative
slower contraction
energy efficient-low intensity exercise produce most energy aerobically
muscle fibre size-small
forced produced-low
resistance to fatigue-slow
contraction speed-slow
mitochondria-high
capillaries-high
myoglobin-high
ATPase level-low
97
Fast twitch
Quick contraction speed, stronger force of contraction
fatigue quickly-not sustainable for long time
produce most energy anaerobically
98
Fast twitch (Type IIa)
Oxidative glycolytic
muscle fibre type-large
force produced-high
resistance to fatigue-quick
contraction speed-quick
mitochondria-medium
capillaries-medium
myoglobin-medium
ATPase level-medium
99
Fast twitch (Type IIb)
Glycolytic
Muscle fibre size-large
force produced-very high
resistance to fatigue-very quick
contraction speed-very quick
mitochondria-low
capillaries-low
myoglobin-low
ATPase level-high
100
Motor unit
Motor neurone & its muscle fibre
101
Motor neurone
Nerve cells which transmit brains instructions as electrical impulses to muscle
102
Motor unit stimulation
1.Electrical impulse from CNS/brain
2.via spinal cord to motor neurones needed to move
3.finds motor unit & stimulates correct amount of units for movement
4.If impulse is of suitable strength at motor end, movement will occur
5.Calcium ions help sliding filament theory, movement will occur
103
Calcium
Aids in sliding filament theory
104
Acetylcholine
Aids spread of impulse across synaptic cleft
105
Small muscle motor units
Fine motor control, motor units that only have few fibres per motor neurone
106
Large muscle motor units
Gross motor control, motor units with motor neurone feeding hundreds of muscle fibres
107
All or nothing theory
Every single muscle contracts at same time & to maximum level or not at all
108
