Approaches Flashcards
1
Q
Wilheim Wundt
A
-First perosn to call himself a ‘psychologist’.
-He said ‘ALL aspects of human nature including the human mind & behaviour can be studied scientifically.
-His method was called introspection: first systematic experimental attempt to study mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images & sensations.
2
Q
What is a ‘scientific approach’?
A
Based on 2 approaches:
1. All behaviour is seen as being caused (determined).
2. If behaviour is determined, it should’ve be possible to predict how humans will behave in diff conditions (predictability).
Refers to use of investigative methods:
-objective: not influenced by personal feelings in considering & representing facts.
-systematic: done or acting according to a fixed plan (methodical).
-replicable: with ability to reproduce.
3
Q
Introspection
A
-looking inwards.
Method of studying mind.
-trained his graduate researchers to make personal observations that were biased & based on experience.
E.g. reflective of their working mind.
-based around sensory perceptions & attention.
E.g. ppts would be exposed to standard stimulus & asked to report sensations.
structuralism: stimuli that Wundt & his Co workers experienced were always presented in the same order & same instructions issued to all ppts.
4
Q
Evaluation of Introspection
A
:) systematic & well controlled.
:) excluded extraneous variables.
:) started foundation of psychology as a science.
:( not credible.
:( relies on someone else’s account.
:( bias.
:( unscientific today.
:( Griffiths (1994) asked gambles to think about whilst playing a fruit machine to see if their thought processes were more irrational. & they were.
5
Q
Psych over time: 17-19th century
A
Psychology is a branch of the broader discipline of philosophy. If psych has a definition in this time, it is as experimental philosophy.
6
Q
Psych over time: 1879
A
Wundt opens the 1st experimental psychology lab in Germany, & psych emerges as a distinct discipline in its own right.
7
Q
Psych over time: 1900s
A
Freud emphasised influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour (the psychodynamic approach).
He also develops his person-cantered therapy psychoanalysis, & shows that physical problems can be explained in terms of conflicts within the mind.
8
Q
Psych over time: 1913
A
John B. Watson writes psychology as the behaviourist views it & layer with B.F. Skinner, establishes the behaviourist approach.
The psychodynamic & behaviourist approaches dominate psychology for 1st half of the 20th century.
9
Q
Psych over time: 1950s
A
Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow develops the humanistic approach the so called ‘third force’ in psychology, rejecting the behaviourist & psychodynamic view that human behaviour is determined by outside factors.
Humanistic psychologists emphasise importance of self-determination & free will.
10
Q
Psych over time: 1950s
A
The introduction of the digital computer gives psychologists a metaphor for the operations of the human mind.
The cognitive approach reintroduces the study of mental processes to psych but in a much more scientific way than Wundt’s earlier investigations.
11
Q
Psych over time: 1960s
A
Albert Bandura proposes the social learning theory.
This approach draws attention to the role of cognitive factors in learning, providing a bridge, between the newly established cognitive approach & traditional behaviourism.
12
Q
Psych over time: 1980s onwards
A
The biological approach begins to establish itself as the dominant scientific perspective in psychology.
This is due to advances in tech that increased understanding of the brain & biological processes.
13
Q
Psych over time: Eve of 21st century
A
Towards the end of the last century, cognitive neurosciences emerges as a distinct discipline bringing together the cognitive & biological approaches.
Cognitive neurosciences investigated how biological structures influence mental states.
14
Q
1900s Behaviourists
A
-By 20th century, value of introspection was questioned, notably by Watson who said the data was very subjective so it’s difficult to establish general laws.
-Skinner proposed that for psych to be scientific, the experiments should be observed objectively & measured.
15
Q
1950s Cognitive approach
A
Digital revolution meant new gen of psychologists compared studying the mind to studying a computer & tested predictions about memory with experiments which insured the study was legitimate & disciplined.
16
Q
1980s Biological approach
A
-Researchers have taken advantage of advances in tech to investigate psychological process.
E.g. use of sophisticated scanning techniques such as fMRI & EEG to study live activity in the brain.
-New methods like genetic testing have helped understand relationship between genes & behaviour.
17
Q
Evaluation of Emergence of psychology as a science - Modern psychology
A
:) Scientific - psych has the same aims as natural sciences (describe, understand, predict & control behaviour).
Learning approaches use lab studies to investigate in a controlled & unbiased way.
18
Q
Evaluation of Emergency of psychology as a science - Subjective data
A
:( Not all approaches use objective methods.
Humanistic approach uses individuals & subjective experiences.
Psychodynamic approach makes use of unrepresentative samples.
& Humans are active ppts & respond to demand characteristics.
Therefore, a scientific approach may not always be possible.
19
Q
Focus on the environment
A
Learning approach states that the environment shapes our behaviour and we are born “tabula rasa” (clean slate).
Not interested in biological explanations.
20
Q
Focus on scientific methods
A
Learning approach says behaviour should be studied in a scientific way by isolating & studying specific actions.
Strong focus on observable events.
21
Q
What do learning approaches say we learn through?
A
-Imitation: social learning theory.
-Consequences for actions: operant conditioning.
-Association: classical conditioning.
22
Q
How does Classical conditioning work?
A
-association
-passive
-Occurs when a neutral stimulus which wouldn’t normal cause a response is associated with an unconditioned stimulus whcih naturally cause a reflex. -This is called an unconditioned response.
-The NS is associated with the UCS so it causes the UCR to occur even when presented with the NS only.
-The NS is now a conditioned stimulus & it causes a conditioned response.
23
Q
Classical conditioning - Pavlov’s dogs
A
Pavlov showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if the sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as they were given the food.
They learnt to associate the sound of the bell (NS) with the food (UCS) & produce salivation every time they were presented with the sound.
Thus, this shows how NS can created a conditioned response through association.
24
Q
Operant conditioning
A
Skinner suggested learning is an active process whereby humans & animals operate on the environment.
Behaviour is shaped by consequences.
25
Reinforcement
A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated in the future.
Positive reinforcement: receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed.
E.g. green stamp for answering a question.
Negative reinforcement: occurs when you remove something unpleasant by performing a behaviour.
E.g. avoiding annoying sound by not wearing a seatbelt.
26
Punishment
A consequence of behaviour that decreases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated in the future.
Positive punishment: receiving an unpleasant consequence after performing a behaviour.
E.g. detention for not doing homework.
Negative punishment: removal of something pleasant after a behaviour.
E.g. confiscation of phone.
27
Skinner’s rats
-Designed cages called Skinner’s boxes where everytime a rat activated a lever, they were rewarded with food. The rat overtime learnt this. (PR)
-Rat would be electric shocked and when he pushed the lever, the uncomfortableness would end. (NR)
28
Determinism
Idea that people are controlled & their behaviour is shaped by internal & external factors. Most psychologists lean towards this idea.
**environmental determinism**: belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as systems of reward & punishment) that we cannot control.
29
Limitation of Behaviourist approach - Environmental determinism
Sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences.
Ignored internal factors and assumed that external factors are the cause of everything & assumes do not have **free will**.
Skinner himself said that free will is an illusion.
Ignores influence of conscious decision making processes in behaviour (cognitive approach).
30
Strength of the Behaviourist approach: Well-controlled research
Behaviourists focussed on measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings.
Removed extraneous variables and effectively established cause & effect.
(Skinner & reinforcement).
Animals do not have demand characteristics & weren’t exposed to environment.
Improves **internal validity.**
Suggests behaviourists have scientific credibility.
Counter: ignores important influence of learning - human thought & private mental processes. Too oversimplified.
31
Limitation of the Behaviourist approach: Ethical issues
Skinners rats were bred in captivity and purposely kept underweight so that they would be hungry & were kept in small, captive, harsh spaces.
Violation of animal ethical guidelines.
32
Strength of Behaviourist approach: Real-world application
Operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in i situations (prisons & psych wards).
Work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens (secondary reinforces) that can be exchanged for privileges. (primary reward)
Increases the value of behaviourist approach as it has widespread application.
33
Social learning theory (SLT): The basics
-Process of how we learn through observation & imitation of role models.
-Not all behaviour is learnt through conditioning.
-Mix of behaviourist & cognitive approach.
34
SLT: Stages of Observational learning
1. Modelling: RM models behaviour.
2. Identification: observer must identify with RM & recognise it’s someone they wish to be like.
3. Observation: observer notices behaviour & notes.
4. Imitation: observer tries behaviour themselves (usually anticipating reward.
35
SLT: Vicarious reinforcement
Not ALL behaviour is imitated, depends on how behaviour is enforced.
-RM behaviour punished: less likely to imitate. **vicarious punishment**
-RM behaviour rewarded: more likely to imitate. **vicarious rewards**
Thus, observer learns behaviour & consequences for behaviour.
36
SLT: Meditational processes
**Bandura** said SLT involves conditions and making u formed decisions & it is a voluntary process.
*A* -attention (noting behaviour)
*R* -retention (remembering it)
*R* -reproduction (performing ability)
*M* -motivation (rewarded/punished)
37
SLT: Identification
-People (esp children) are likely to imitate who they identify with (gender,age,ethnicity).
-A person becomes a RM if they’re seen to possess similar characteristics as the person & are attractive or have a high status.
-Don’t have to be physically present.
38
Study 1: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1961) - Imitating RMs
Aim:
to find out if children would show more aggressive behaviour if exposed to an aggressive role model & less aggressive behaviour if exposed to non aggressive. Also to see if sex of RM & child made difference.
Procedure:
-Used equal no. of boys & girls (36) & measured how aggressive they were on 5 point claw by nursery teachers to put in groups.
-Children playing in rooms where (1) aggressive model comes in & pushes/punches/swears at bobo doll & hits with mallet, (2) non-aggressive model played quietly alongside kids.
-Children toys were taken away.
Results:
-G1 kids were aggressive with bobo doll in same way adult RM Ws.
-In G2, & control group, around 70% children had score of 0 for aggression.
-Male RM had bigger influence than female.
Conclusions:
-Behaviour can be learned by imitation even without reinforcement.
-Male RM more influential - cultural expectations.
-Verbal aggression was **sex-typed**, girls imitated women & boys imitated men. Imitate who they identify with.
39
Study 2: Bandura, Ross & Ross (1963a) - Replication, using filmed RMs
Aim:
-Find out if kids become more aggressive when exposed to aggressive RM in film/less realistic cartoon than live.
-Test popular idea that filmed aggressions is cathartic. (Makes calm).
Procedure:
-Same as original with extra condition of where children watched film where female adult model was dressed as cartoon cat following script.
Results:
-Conteol group carried out half as much aggression.
-No significant difference with live/filmed/cartoon models.
Conclusions:
-Concluded children imitate filmed and live aggression the same way.
-Watching filmed violence is not cathartic & encourages more aggression.
40
Study 3: Bandura (1965) - Replication, with rewards & punishments
Aim:
-To find out if children are more likely to imitate an RM who’s rewarded & less likely to imitate RM being punished.
-See if children are more likely to imitate when offered rewards.
Procedure:
-Basic procedure is same as original.
-Model “Rocky” went through scripted routine of aggressive behaviour.
-In reward condition, he was offered sweets & praised for “superb aggressive performance”.
-In punishment condition, he was called a “big bully” and hit with a rolled up newspaper.
-No consequences condition = nothing happened.
-Children asked to “show what rocky did” & if there was imitative aggression, they were rewarded. **positive incentive condition**.
Results:
-Model reward condition produced about same imitation from girls & boys as the no consequence condition.
-Model punished produced much less imitation, esp in girls (0.5).
-After positive incentive, imitation increased across all conditions.
Conclusions:
-Children less likely to imitate punished RMs. However, no consequences condition shows behaviour doesn’t have to be punished/rewarded to be imitated.
-When offered incentives, children who watched model be punished show they learnt aggressive behaviour.
-Girls are more restrained with threats of punishment.
41
Strength of SLT: Recognises cognitive factors
-Neither classical or operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own as humans and animals can store info about human behaviours & make judgements of appropriate times to perform certain actions.
Suggests SLT provides comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising meditational processes.
Counter: little reference to influence of biological factors. Bandura thought learning was completely determined by environment. Recent research shows importance of mirror neurones in brain which allow to emphasise and imitate others.
42
Limitation of SLT: Contrived lab studies
All evidence is based on lab studies.
-Ignores demand characteristics.
-Children could simply have thought it was expected to strike the doll.
-Lacks **ecological validity** due to unnatural artificial study causing unnatural behaviour which isn’t applicable to all.
Research may not entirely show how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.
43
Strength of SLT: Real-world application
Applied to real world behaviours.
-Explains cultural differences in behavuour.
-SLT principles (ARRM) can account for how children learn from those around them & how media transmits cultural norms.
44
Evaluation of SLT: Reciprocal determinism
-In the sense that we are not merely influenced by our external environment but we also exert and influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform.
-Suggests we have free will (contrasts with behaviourist approach).
45
The cognitive approach: Ideologies
Compares the human mind to a computer by suggesting there are similarities in the way we process info.
Input -> process -> output
(environment, coding/store, response)
Differences:
-humans add meaning to what they input (interpretations).
-computers ALWAYS pay attention.
-direct input through keyboard.
Focused on how internal processes (thoughts) affect behaviour; memory, problem solving, language etc.
46
The cognitive approach: Basic assumptions
-Argues internal processes can and should be studied scientifically (diff to behaviourist).
-Studied processes indirectly using **inferences** - the process used to draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.
E.g.
memory study -> results -> capacity is 7+/-2 (inference)
47
The cognitive process: The role of the schema
-**Schema** is packages of ideas & info developed through experience. They act as framework for the interpretation of upcoming info.
E.g. you have a schema for a chair which helps you understand it’s for sitting in, helps you respond to it appropriately.
-Babies have simple motor schema for innate behaviours like sucking.
-As we grow, schemas become more detailed & sophisticated giving mental representations.
-Helps process lots of info quickly & stops being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
Can lead to perceptual errors. (forget things & make up things).
E.g. you hear a dog bark outside at night & see a firework, then remember dogs can be scared of fireworks, then you bring the dog inside.
48
The cognitive process: The role of a schema - Bugelski & Alampov
Schemas can distort interpretations of sensory info.
-Bugelski & Alampov - The Rat-man: 2 groups of ppts shown a sequence of pictures & asked to describe what they saw.
1 group saw pictures of people then shown image of rat man. They saw the man with glasses.
2nd group saw pictures of animals & shown ratman. They saw the rat. I’m
49
The cognitive approach: Theoretical & computer models
-One important theoretical model is the **information processing approach** which suggests that info flows through cognitive system in a sequence of stages. (MSM).
-This info is based on how computers function but a computer model would involve programming a computer to see if instructions produce a similar output to humans. If so, suggested that similar processes go on in human mind.
-Helped create **artificial intelligence**
50
The cognitive approach: The emergence of cognitive neuroscience
-Scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes.
-1860s **Broca** identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe (now Broca’s area) could permanently impair speech production.
-Last 25 years, we use fMRI & PET scans to observe & describe neurological basis of mental processes.
E.g. Buckner & Peterson found that diff types of LTM can be found on opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex.
E.g. the central executive in the WMM is thought to reside in similar area (Braver et al 1997).
-Scanning techs have also proved uself in establishing neurological basis of mental disorders.
E.g. link between the parahippocampal gyrus & OCD. Appears to play a role in processing unpleasant emotions.
-Focus of this has expanded recently to include use of computer generated models to read the brain.
E.g. ‘brain fingerprinting’. & potentially in future analysis of brain wave patterns of EWT to determine lying or not.
51
Strength of The cognitive approach: Scientific methods
Uses objective & scientific methods.
-highly controlled so researched can infer cognitive processes at work.
-use of lab studies to produce reliable data.
-& emergence of cog neuroscience enabled 2 fields of bio & cognitive psychology to enhance scientific basis of study.
Credible basis.
Counter: rather than direct observation of behaviour, it can suffer from being too abstract & theoretical un nature. Similarly, research studies of mental processes often use artificial stimuli (memory) which is unrepresentative of everyday experience.
Lacks external validity.
52
Strength of The cognitive approach: Real life application
Has practical application.
-important contribution in field of AI & development of ‘thinking machines’ (robots).
-advances into how we live in the future.
-principles applied to treatment of depression & improved reliability of EWT.
Supports value of cognitive approach.
53
Limitation of The cognitive approach: Machine reductionism
Based on **machine reductionism**.
-similarities between human mind & computer (inputs, outputs etc).
-this criticises analogy as it ignores the influence of human emotion & motivation on cognitive system & effect on ability to process info.
E.g. research has found memory can be affected by emotional factors (anxiety on EWT).
Suggests machine reductionism may weaken validity of cognitive approach.
54
Evaluation of The cognitive approach: Soft Determinism
-The cognitive approach is founded in soft determinants (the view that human behaviour can be determined by internal & external factors but we can also exert free will).
-The had determinism view says all behaviour is determined by factors other than will (genes & conditioning).
55
The biological approach: Basic assumptions
-Suggests everything psychological is at first biological so to fully understand human behaviour, we must look to biological structures & processes in body.
-Mind lives in brain so all thoughts & feelings have a physical basis.
-Can study this by; lab experiments (animals), brain scanning techs, case studies of brain damaged people & twin studies.
56
The biological approach: The genetic basis of behaviour
-Believe that psychological characteristics can be inherited just like physical ones.
-Twin studies can be used to investigate if certain characteristics have a genetic basis.
-Achieved by analysing concordance rates (the extent to which twins share the same characteristic). 0-1, 0 is no concordance & 1 is perfect concordance.
-If a characteristic (musical ability) is genetic, we’d expect all identical (monozygotic) twins to be concordant.
-Whereas the same wouldn’t be true for non identical (dizygotic) twins who share about 50% of the same genes.
In both cases, the environment is assumed to be constant.
**genotype**: actual genes you inherit from parents.
**phenotype**: combination of genes and environment (inheritance & presentation).
57
The biological approach: Neurons + nervous system/ the brain/ hormones
Neurons & nervous system:
-assume experiences & behaviours are caused by activity in nervous system.
-NS is specialised network of cells in body & primary communication system:
-> collect, process & respond.
-> coordinate working of diff organs & cells.
The brain:
-2 hemispheres (left & right) - 4 loves (occipital, frontal, parietal, temporal).
-cerebral cortex (85% of the brain; loads of neurones).
Hormones:
-chemicals released into bloodstream through endocrine system.
-glands produce hormones.
-CNS says hormones required & they are secreted into blood & travel to target cells.
-causes psychological response.
E.g. Carre et al (2006) studied Canadian ice hockey team over course of season.
Found evidence of a surge in levels of testosterone whenever team played in their home stadium, suggesting hormone energised players to defend home territory.
58
The biological approach: Neurotransmitters
Messages travel through the NS due to **neurotransmitters**: chemicals that determine whether or not an electrical impulse.
-causes messages to travel around the body.
-all physical actions are a result of messages around body.
-we can link imbalances of neurotransmitters to certain mental disorders.
-dopamine influences movement, learning, attention & emotion.
-examples of malfunction is schizophrenia & under supply Parkinson’s disease.
-serotonin affects mood, hunger, sleep & arousal.
-examples of malfunctions is under supply depression.
59
The biological approach: Evolution, natural selection & sexual selection
Evolution:
-process by which living organisms are believed to have developed from earlier forms during trye history of the earth.
-**adaptation**: how inherited characteristics in organisms change from gen to gen.
-evolutionary basis for survival.
Natural selection:
-the way some characteristics may aid survival.
-organisms that display characteristics that don’t aid survival don’t get to reproduce.
-these bad genes don’t get passed on & will die out.
-survival of the fittest.
Sexual selection:
-a characteristic that makes an individual more attractive to mate with.
-made competition: males compete with each other for female.
-female choice: males try impress & she chooses to mate.
**Buss (1989)** found across cultures, women tend to desire resources & men desire physical attraction.
60
Strength of The biological approach: Real world application
Has real world application.
-increased understanding of neurochemical processes is associated with use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders.
-e.g. promoted treatment of clinical depression with antidepressants which increase levels of neurotransmitter seratonin in at synapses in brain.
Means depressed people can manage condition.
Counterpoint: Ciprani et al (2018) compared 21 antidepressants & found wide variations in effectiveness. Although most were more effective than placebos, researched concluded the effects were ‘’mainly modest”.
-Challenges value of approach as it suggests brain chem alone can’t account for all cases of (depression).
61
Strength of The biological approach: Scientific methods
Uses scientific methods for investigation:
-uses precise & objective methods.
-fMRIs & EEGs.
-accurately measured physiological & neural processes that are unbiased.
Means data is **objective & reliable**.
62
Limitation of The biological approach: Biological determinism
Deterministic theory.
-sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control.
-but we can see the phenotype is influenced by environment.
-even identical twins with the same genes don’t act and think the same.
-“could we rule out criminal behaviour in the claim they have a ‘crime gene’?”
Suggests view is too simplistic & ignores mediating environmental effects.
63
Limitation of The biological approach: Karl Popper
Argues you cant falsify the theory of natural selection as we cannot show evolution happening & it can only be deduced.
However, others claim principles are supported by fossil records (dinosaurs into birds).
64
The psychodynamic approach: 2 main beliefs
1. Childhood (0-5) has a huge effect on later life & can influence personality, relationships & general mental health.
2. We have an unconscious part of our mind containing thoughts, feelings, memories, & desires we cannot express.
65
The psychodynamic approach: The role of the unconscious
Freud suggested:
-part of mind we are aware of is our conscious mind (tip of the iceberg) which is our current thoughts.
-most of mind is unconscious- storehouse of biological drives & instincts which influence our behaviour & personality.
-preconscious/subconscious are thoughts/memories that are accessible but not currently aware of.
-unconscious mind also contains **repressed** thoughts that are threatening/disturbing (forgotten).
Recognised 2 important urges:
1. Eros (lipidos): life instinct, manifesting asexuality.
2. Thanatos: death instinct, manifesting as aggression & destructiveness.
66
The psychodynamic approach: Freudian slips & Dreams
Freudian slips:
-unconscious comes out & repressed feelings come out as “misspoken words”.
-glimpse into unconscious.
-tells about ‘hidden’ parts of our mind.
Freud said that “dreams are the royal road to the unconscious”:
-believed they were the window/direct view to it.
-believed that things in our unconscious can cause issues if not explained.
-would analyse his patients dreams to interpret their unconscious.
**manifest content**: what was in the dream.
**latent content**: what was symbolised/represented in the unconscious.
Believed ‘unacceptable’ thought’s were hidden in unconscious, (ie. sex).
67
The psychodynamic approach: Tripartite model - id, superego & ego
3 parts of personality (angel/superego, person/ego, & devil/id).
Superego:
-**MORALITY principle**.
-develops around 3-5 years.
-strives for perfection (learns from parents).
-only senses right & wrong.
-guilt
Id:
-babies are born with it.
-fully unconscious.
-instinctive (needs come first).
-primitive/animalistic mind (psychic & sexualised energy / libido).
-selfish.
-**PLEASURE principle**.
Ego:
-“I”.
-conscious & rational.
-develops around 18 months.
-sometimes allows id but aware you don’t always get what you want.
-**REALITY principle**.
-seeks to satisfy both id & superego.
-“ego-strength” is how well ego cities with these forces (chocolate cake).
68
The psychodynamic approach: Tripartite model - imbalances
-one may dominate the other 2.
-this affects personality.
E.g. driven by the id: more selfish, impulsive & reckless.
E.g. driven by the superego: more moral, perfectionist, scared, judgmental.
69
The psychodynamic approach: Defence mechanisms: What are they?
Coping strategy to protect yourself from being exposed to vulnerable or harmful situations.
AKA: unconscious strategies the ego uses to manage conflict between id & superego.
E.g. projection, denial, anger, age regression etc.
Role:
-protect conscious mind by preventing us from experiencing something you’ll find unpleasant / traumatic.
-> pushing a thought out of conscious.
-> applying thought to someone or something else.
70
The psychodynamic approach: Defence mechanisms - anxiety & repression/denial/displacement
Anxiety:
-ego either experiences or anticipates anxiety & DM is activated.
-anxiety can be triggered if ego feels it’ll fail to meet both pleasure & moral demand of id & superego.
Repression (forgetting):
-pushing unwanted memories, truths, feelings & emotions into unconscious mind.
-unconscious process.
Denial:
-refusal to accept truth.
-conscious process.
71
The psychodynamic approach: Defence mechanisms - projection, regression & reduction formation
Projection:
-saying that the unacceptable thoughts are someone else’s.
Regression:
-in order to cope, the mind regressed back to a previous stage of life.
-ie. when feeling anxious, you may act child like (suck thumb, want your caregiver).
Reaction formation:
-consciously feeling or thinking the very opposite of what you unconsciously feel & therefor behave how you think is acceptable.
-e.g. homophobics aroused by homosexual video is more than heterosexual.
72
Evaluation of Defence mechanisms
:( Lack of test ability/falsifiability as they’re unconscious processes.
:( Can only be inferred from behaviour or reported thoughts.
:( Gender differences & Cultural differences.
:) Real world application (forgetting due to denial).
:) Intuitive appeal - most people appreciate the idea of denial, repression & displacement.
:) Useful in therapy to identify issues.
73
The psychodynamic approach: Psychosexual stages
-Freud believed the first few years (0-5) of a child’s life were vital in personality & development morally.
-5 stages are: oral, anal, plahllic, latency & genital.
-Believed sexual energy (libido) is present since birth.
-Each energy focuses on a different body area in each stage.
-That stage is where we get most pleasure from.
74
The psychodynamic approach: Psychosexual stages - Oral stage
-Birth-18 months old.
-mouth is focus of pleasure.
-feeding/sucking thumb/dummy’s.
-id is in control.
-fixation can occur in this stage if a child is weaned too early or late.
-fixation can lead to overeating, talking too much, chewing pens, smoking etc as an adult.
-constant need of stimulation in mouth.
-weaned too soon = pessimistic/sarcastic personality.
-weaned too late = needy, admiring, gullible personality.
75
The psychodynamic approach: Psychosexual stages - Anal stage
-2-3 year olds, potty training.
-anus is main focus.
-if this stage isn’t resolved, it’ll lead to an anal character.
-parents might be too strict or lenient causing fixation.
If fixation occurs, there’s 2 types of personalities:
**Anal expulsive character:** if the child potty trains easily (messy, creative, reckless, disorganised character).
**Anal retentive character:** if the child struggles to train (careful, precise, stubborn, obsessively clean character).
76
The psychodynamic approach: Psychosexual stages - Phallic stage
-occurs from age 4.
-focus of pleasure is genitals.
-**Oedipus complex** (boys), finds mother sexually attractive, unconsciously loves mother & wants to hurt & compete with father.
-**Electra complex** (girls) (by Jung), girls love their father, hopes they receive his penis. penis envy & upset with mother for castrating.
Can overcome this by getting over love & identifying with their father & becomes masculine.
Can overcome replaces desire for penis with baby.
77
The psychodynamic approach: Psychosexual stages - Latency stage
-age 6 - puberty.
-no focus on sexual drive.
-children form same-sex friendships.
-focus on school & sports.
-fixations & issues from other stags are repressed.
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The psychodynamic approach: Psychosexual stages - Genital stage
-starts at puberty.
-libido focussed on the genitals.
-focussed on friendships & relationships.
-fixations begun impacting personality.
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The psychodynamic approach: Little Hans
Freud supported the theory of the Oedipus complex.
-Hans was a 5 year old boy who developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street.
-Freud suggested this was a form of displacement in which his repressed fear of his father was displaced onto horses.
-Thus, horses were a symbolic representation of Hans’ real unconscious fear- fear of castration by father.
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Strength of the Psychodynamic approach: Real world application
-introduced **psychoanalysis** & Freud introduced psychotherapy.
-first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically, not physically.
-employed techniques to access unconscious by bringing repressed emotions to their conscious mind.
-foundation of modern therapists like **counselling**.
Counter: psychoanalysis is regarded as inappropriate for those with serious disorders (schizophrenia).
Many symptoms (paranoia/delusional) mean they’ve lost grip on reality & cannot articulate their thoughts.
Suggests Freudian theory may not apply to all mental disorders.
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Strength of the Psychodynamic approach: Explanatory power
It’s ability to explain human behaviour:
-controversial, but had influence on psych & contemporary thought.
-key force of psych for first half of the 20th century & has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena (personality/gender identity/disorders).
-significant in drawing attention to connection between experiences in childhood & later development.
Suggests that psychodynamic approach has had a positive impact on psych, literature, art etc.
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Limitation of the Psychodynamic approach: Untestable concepts (Popper)
Very untestable.
-Popper argued that approach doesn’t meet criteria of **falsification**.
-not open to **empirical** testing &
possibly disapproval.
-many of Freud’s theories i ur at an unconscious level so they’re harder to eldest.
-theories came from subjective studies (Little Hans) making it difficult to make universal claims about human behaviour.
Suggests that his theory is pseudoscientific (not a real science) rather than established fact.
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Limitation of the Psychodynamic approach: Psychic determinism
Suggests that much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood.
-Freud believed there’s no such thing as an ‘accident’.
-Even a ‘slip of the tongue’ is driven by unconscious forces & has a deep meaning.
Critics say this is too extreme & dismisses any possible influence of free will on behaviour.
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The Humanistic approach: Basic assumptions
Developed by Maslow & Rogers in the 1950s.
-focussed on conscious experience rather than behaviour, on personal responsibility & free will.
-**free will** is the notion that the choices we make are our own & not determined by internal (biological hormones) or external forces (society & association).
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Assumptions of the humanistic approach: Free will
-full conscious control over their destiny.
-people are able to make significant personal choices within the constraints imposed by other forces such as society rules or biology.
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Assumptions of the humanistic approach: Maslow’s theory (1943)
-Maslow was not interested in what went wrong with people, but rather he was interested in finding out what could go right.
-His hierarchy of needs emphasised the importance of personal growth & fulfilment & opened the door for later movements in psychology, such as positive psychology & happiness.
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Maslow’s theory: Hierarchy of needs
-each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up to a higher need.
-Maslow believed that the more basic the need, the more powerful it is experienced & harder to ignore.
E.g. writing a spectacular essay is difficult when hungry/tired.
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Maslow’s theory: Self actualisation
-Represenrs the uppermost level of Maslow’s hierarchy.
-All 4 of the ‘defiance of needs’ must be in order for a person to work towards SA & reach potential.
-Maslow find that most of those who attained this level shared certain characteristics.
-Such as; being creative, accepting & an accurate perception of the world around them.
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Maslow’s hierarchy model (1970)
Top to bottom:
-Self actualisation
-Need for esteem
-Need for love & belonging
-Need for safety
-Physiological needs
-Needs at the bottom are known as ‘deficiency needs’ as they are designed to reduce inadequacies & top levels are ‘growth needs’ as they promote personal growth.
-Maslow suggests that moments of achievement, we’re when all needs weee met (have to be met to progress upwards).
-Negative life experiences (divorce/fired etc) causes fluctuation between levels.
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Basic assumptions of the humanistic approach: Focus on self (1951)
-The **self/self concept** refers to how we see ourselves as a person.
-We have 2 basic needs:
1. Positive regard from others.
2. Feeling of self worth.
-Self worth develops in childhood & further interactions with others.
-Rogers believed feelings towards self worth is important in determining psychological health.
-The closer our self-concept & ideal self are, the greater our feelings of self worth & psychological health.
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Basic assumptions of the humanistic approach: Congruence
-When there’s similarity between a persons ideal self & how they perceive themselves to be in real life.
-Individual employ defence mechanisms to feel threatened by inconsistencies to be in real life.
-Individuals do this to be less threatened by how they would like to be & how they really are.
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Basic assumptions of the humanistic approach: Conditions of worth (1959)
-Rogers believed the harder you try to help process of SA, you hinder it.
-**positive regard**: unconditional regard is when you’re accepted for who you are.
-**conditional positive regard (CPR)** is when you’re accepted if you do what others want you to do.
-CPR leads to conditions of worth, these are conditions that a person perceived as significant places upon them.
-A person mag experience a sense of self acceptance only if they meet expectations others have set.
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The Humanistic approach: Client centred therapy
-focussed on exploring emotions & asking patients about selves & how the feel (not heavy on ‘fixing’ client, rather exploring where emotions root).
-non-judgemental, unconditional positive & safe environment.
-empathy & lets them sit with difficult emotions & sits with them.
-“it is the client that knows what hurts” (Rogers).
-self concept - looking at how the client sees themselves, built from past & an external locus.
-tries to get back to the person’s core self & help them get back to an internal locus & explorative process.
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The Humanistic approach: Counselling psychology
-modern day psychotherapy.
-used in Samaritans & helplines.
-Rogers referred to them as ‘clients’, not ‘patients’ as he saw the individual as the expert to their own condition.
-not directed by the therapist & client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions in a supportive non judgemental atmosphere.
-Rogers believes an effective therapist should provide: genuineness, empathy & unconditional positive regard.
-aims to increase persons feelings of self worth, congruence & help them function better.
-Similar counselling skills are practised, not only in clinical settings, but education, health, social work etc.
-praised as a forward-looking & effective approach that focuses on present problems rather than dwelling on the past.
-best applied to treatment of ‘mild’ conditions (self worth/anxiety).
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Strength of the Humanistic approach: Holistic/Non-reductionism
Rejects attempts to break up behaviour & experience into smaller components.
-In contrast to the other theories, humanistic psychologists advocate **holism** (idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person.
This approach may have more validity by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real world context.
Counter: reductionist approaches may be more scientific. & that’s because the ideal of science is the experiment. (IVs & DVs).
Relatively few concepts can be broken town to single variable & measured.
Means humanistic psychology is sort on **empirical** evidence to support its claims.
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Strength of Humanistic approach: Positive approach
Optimistic approach.
-bring persoj into psychology & promote positive image of the human condition.
-Freud saw humans as “prisoners of their past” & claimed we all existed between “common unhappiness & absolute despair.”
-in contrast, humanistic psychologists see all people as basically good, free to work towards achievement of their potential & in control.
Suggests approach offers a refreshing & optimistic alternative to other approaches.
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Limitation of Humanistic approach: Cultural bias
Culturally biased approach.
-many ideas that are central to this (individual freedom, autonomy, personal growth) would be more readily associated with counties that have more **individualist** tendencies (US) than **collectivist** tendencies.
-collectivist tendency cultures emphasis needs of the group & interdependence.
-the ideals of humanistic psychology wouldn’t be important to them.
Possible that this approach isn’t universal & a product of cultural context in which it was developed.
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Limitation of Humanistic approach: Limited application
Little impact/little practical application in the real world.
-approach has been described as a loose set of abstract ideas.
-However, Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling techniques & Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation (esp in the workplace).
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Comparing approaches
**S** scientific
**A** application (treatments)
**R** reductionism vs holism
**D** determinism vs free will
**I** ideographic vs nomothetic
**N** nature vs nurture
**E** extrapolation (animals in research)
