Approaches Flashcards
(110 cards)
1
Q
Wundt A01
A
-Known as the father of psychology moved from philosophical roots to controlled research
-Set up the first psychology lab in Liepzig, Germany in the 1870’s
-promoted the use of introspection as a way of studying mental processes
-His work later paved way for the later controlled research and the study of mental processes e.g. by cognititve psychologists
2
Q
Define introspection
A
The systematic analysis of ones own conscious experience, thought processes, feelings, emotions and sensations.
3
Q
Method of introspection
1)
2)Components are…
3)Ppl were trained to do…
4)People were presented with…
A
- Record own conscious thoughts, breaking them down into components (structuralism)
- components are elements like sensation, emotional reactions etc
- ppl were trained to do this analysis to make the data objective rather than subjective
- people were presented with standardised sensory events like a ticking metronome and asked to report their reactions.
-controlled lab setting
4
Q
Who criticised introspection for not being objective?why?
A
Watson. subjective as it varied from person to person, difficult to establish general principles. Truly scientific psych should restrict itself to being empirical by studying phenomena that can be observed, from this principle stemmed the behaviourist approach.
5
Q
What are the features of a science?(FORE)
A
F-falsifiability: when its possible to prove a statement, theory or hypothesis wrong. Only possible if study is replicable
O-objectivity: free from bias, based on observable phenomena. Not influenced by personal opinion, prejudice or emotion; its empirically available for other scientists to check and verify
R-replicability: extent to which a study can be repeated so that reliabilty of results can be judged
E-empirical: directly observable and gathered through the senses. Can be verified by measurements and doesn’t go beyond the boundaries of what can be observed.
6
Q
Other than FORE, what else are features of science?
1)T
2)P
A
1)Theory constuction and hypothesis testing: to make scientific progress it must be possible to test and falsify a theory must be Rigid and hypothesis must be clear (operationalised). Theory can be tested and proven correct or incorrect (falsified)
2)Paradigms and paradigm shifts
7
Q
What is a paradigm?
A
a distinct set of concept or thought patterns within a specific domain. Each approach has its own paradigm.
8
Q
What is a paradigm shift?
A
happens when a theory is falsified and a new paradigm is created that is based on the newly discovered info.
9
Q
Evaluation of Wundts method and the scientific approach PLAN
A
(-) His research was not scientific
(+)Some aspects would still be considered scientific
(-)low ecological validity
(+)Introspection is till being used as a useful method by modern psychologists
10
Q
What does the learning approach focus on?
A
how we are all a product of our experiences (learning). and incorporates both behaviourism and SLT. All human behaviour is learnt, and we are born as ‘blank slates’
11
Q
What are the basic assumptions of the behaviourist approach?
A
-behaviour learnt from experiences born as blank slate no genetic infuence on behaviour
-only observable behaviours is measurable scientifically and only these should be studied as thought processes are subjective and difficult to test
-should use lab experiment best way maintaining objectivity
-learning is same in all species. valid to study behaviour of animals
12
Q
Behaviourist approach: classical conditioning AO1
A
learning by association. Humans & animals can be classically conditioned. Learning occurs when an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and reflex response (positive or negative). Positive response will arise when the person becomes in contact with positive stimulus. Same for negative.
13
Q
Who first described the process of cc in 1904?
A
Pavlov from his observations of salivation, dogs automatically salivate when presented with food - reflex response and no learning is required (automatic)
14
Q
A01: pavlov dog
A
-food UCS salivation UR
-conditioned dog to salivate to sound of a bell(NS-> CS) repeatedly presented food whilst ringing the bell.
-The NS (bell) is repeatedly paired with an UCS (food), the two become associated, resulting in the NS becoming a CS to create a previously instinctive and now conditioned response (salivating)
15
Q
Evaluation of Pavlov (2 )
(+)Experimental method
(-)Non-human animals
A
(+)experimental method, Controlled conditions. manipulating the UCS and NS (IV), was able to accurately measure the amount the dog salivated (DV). Cause & effect relationship between stimulus and response.
(-)non-human animals. doesnt reveal alot abt human behaviour. Humans have free will behaviour not purely determined by association made between stimulus and response. Conclusions abt CC may not provide a valid explanation of all human behaviour as extrapolating findings
16
Q
Operant conditioning A01
A
-learning by consequences (reinforcement) of ones own behaviour
-something in environment strengthens behaviour more likely to occur. example…
17
Q
Types of reinforcement
A
1)Positive: receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is peformed. More likely to reoccur if its reawrded by positive consequences
2)Negative:rewarded by avoiding something unpleasant. More likely if rewarded by avoiding something unpleasant
Punishment is NOT reinforcement
18
Q
Skinner positive reinforcement (PR) A01
A
skinner box (SB)
positive: hungry rat in SB, accidently knock lever, food pellet drop = PR, learnt to go straight to lever after a few times. they were conditioned to engage in unnatural behaviour (learned) of pushing a lever
19
Q
Skinner negative reinforcement (NR) A01
A
rat in SB, electric current, accidently knock lever, immediatley switch off (unpleasant stimulus stopped). NR for behaviour. Quickly leanred to go straight for the lever after few times of being placed in box.
20
Q
skinner punishment (P) A01
A
- define punishment
-once rat was taught to press lever, skinner trained it to cease this behaviour by electrifying the floor each time the lever was pressed.
21
Q
skinner operant conditioning A03
(+)Experimental method, controlled con
A
(+)experimental method, controlled conditions (Skinner Box) to discover the causal relationship between two or more variables. By manipulating consequences of behaviour (IV), he was able to accuratley measure the effect on the rats behaviour (DV). Strength of Skinners research because it allowed him to establish the cause and effect relationship between the consequences of behaviour (positive or negative) and the future frequency of its occurrence.
22
Q
Evaluation of the behaviourist approach (1: practical application)
A
(+)Practical application such as counter conditioning treatments, flooding and systematic desensitisation.The effectiveness of these therapies suggests that the behaviourist principles that they are based on must have some validity and merit.
23
Q
Social learning theory (SLT) basic assumptions
A
1)behaviour is learnt from the environment and thus genetic don’t influence behaviour
2)Behaviour is learnt from observing others (role models) and the reinforcement or punishment they recieve. From this, individuals will decide whether to imitate the behaviour or not.
24
Q
What are the three types of reinforcement in SLT?
A
1)Identification
2)Imitation
3)Modelling
25
Identification
individual is influenced by another because they are in some way similar to that person (e.g. gender, ethnicity, social status) or wish to be like them (they identify with the model). Much more likely to imitate the behaviour of people with whom thy identify.
26
Imitation
observes behaviour from a role model and copies it. Key determinants: characteristics of model, the observers abaility to perform the behaviour and the observered consequences.
27
Modelling
observing the behaviour of a role model. Might observe a live model e.g.parent, sibling, teacher etc or they may copy a symbollic model e.g. a character on TV. These models provide examples of behaviour that may be imitated.
28
Define vicarious reinforcement (SLT)
the reinforcement the observer sees the model recieving. They do not recieve the reward themselves; they see someone else get it. A reinforcement, such as a reward, makes behaviour more likely to be imitated. It's more likely that a rewarded behaviour is copied than a behaviour that is punished
29
The role of mediating processes (SLT-Bandura)
A:Attention= have to notice behaviour for it to be imitated
R:Retention= may be noticed, but not always remembered, which prevents imitation
M:Motor reproduction= physical abilities, influences decision whether to try and imitate it or not
M:Motivation=the desire to perform the behaviour. The reward/puishments following a behaviour will be considered by the observer. reward outwheigh cost = more motivated
30
Banduras, Ross and Ross research A01
RM= role model
36M 36F mean age 4 yrs. 4 conditions (sam sex vs opposite sex RM &non-aggressive vs aggressive RM).
-Control group that wasn't exposed to model
-aggressive RM hit bobo doll with hammer and shouted at it
-non-aggressive ignored bobo doll and played with the toys
-after 10mins children were brought to diff room and experienced aggression arousal, then taken to another room with toys and observed for 20mins to see extent to which behaviour would be replicated
31
Bandura, Ross and Ross findings
-children who observed aggressive behaviour acted more aggressively
-boys acted more aggresive than girls
-greater level of imitation of same-sex RM
-Children learn social behaviour such as aggression by observing the behaviours of others and that this is most likely when model is of the same gender
32
Evaluation of Banduras study (3)
(+)Experimental methods. Controlled environment causal relationship between modelling and imitation of aggression. Manipulated gender & behaviour of model (IV), he was able to accurately measure the effect on the children behaviour (DV). Establish cause and effect between obervation and imitation.
(-)Low ecological validity. unfamiliar controlled environment, no interaction between model and children and models were total strangers. Desn't accuratley reflect real-life.
(-)unethical psychological harm such as stress
33
Evaluation of SLT PLAN
(+)Supported by evidence.
(+)Provides a more holistic and less deterministic view of behaviour than OP or CC.
(+)Enables us to understand cultural differences in behaviour.
(-)Favours only the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate.
34
Cognitive approach assumptions
-thought processes can and should be stdudies scientifically and well controlled lab studies can investigate what we are thinking
-mind works like a computer input from senses which it then processes and produces an output such as language or specific behaviours
35
The study of internal mental processes Cognitive approach (CA) A01
studies...(ways in which we...and ...and...to guide...)
Uses...by..and making...(assumptions abt...that cannot be...)
Uses the what method>?
studies informational processing (ways in which we extract and store and retrieve info to guide our behaviour). use non-empirical thought processes by observing behaviour and making inferences (assumptions abt mental processes that cannot be observed directly). use experimental method
36
The role of schemas cognitive approach
-mental framework that incorporates our ideas about a person or situation , from experience. Allow us to process info quickly and predict what may happen, enabling us to respond appropriately to new situations. babies are born with some innate schemas e.g.sucking. As we become older schemas become more detailed and sophisticated.
37
What does the cognitive approach use to explain and make inferences about mental processes?
theoretical and computer models. e.g.the information processesing approach theoretical model - which suggests that info flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages like a computer. The computer analogy - suggests the human mind is like a computer. Uses concepts of central processing unit (brain); coding and the stores to hold info.
Input->processing->output
38
two evaluationpoints of using theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes
(-)over-simplistic. ignores individual differences and the role of emotion in behaviour. Could be considered machine reductionist, the belief that human functions are the result of the 'units' of activity in iformation processing systems, such as memory stores. overlooks complexity of human behaviour not adequate explanation
(-)determinist view of human behaviour. comparing humans to computers suggest no freewill, control behaviour, accountable.Many psychologist believe we do have freewill to act in a unique and unpredictable fashion e.g. humanist psychologists.
39
cognitivist approach
(+)Practical applications
led to development of fmri and pet which have been used to test LTM. Tulving et al used pet scans to determine which part of brain ptps were using when carrying out a task. Tasks that used *semantic memory used the left side of the prefrontal cortex *and those that used *episodic memory used the right side of the prefrontal cortex*. This is evidence that episodic memory and semantic memory are 2 separate stores in LTM because they are controlled by different parts of the brain. Therefore the PET scan was able to provide evidence for Tulving’s model of different types of LTM.
40
The biological approach key assumptions
-behaviour is affected by:
-genetics
-evolution
-the CNS
-biochemistry
41
Twin studies - biological approach
compare monozygotic (MZ)- identical (100% same DNA) and dizygotic (DZ) - non-identical (50% same DNA). Have same bahviour is measured (concordance rate) and compared which gives an indication of how much behaviour is genetic. If the shared behaviour is more likely when the individuals are genetically the same (MZ), then arguably the behaviour has a genetic component.
42
Adoption studies - biological approch
examine concordance rates (CR) for a behaviour between adoptive children and their biological parents (share 50% same DNA) but 0% with their adoptive parent. If high CR between bio parent and child, behaviour must be genetic as it is not possible the behaviour was learnt from bio parents as they weren't brought up by them.
43
Genotype - biological approach
An individuals gentic make-up. Dictates characteristics such as eye and hair colour. Each individual (apart from identical twins) has a genotype which is unique to them.
44
Phenotype - biological approach
The expression of an individuals genetic make-up which can be influenced by the environment. With a physical characteristic such as height the genotype dictates the potential height an individual can reach but environmental factors will affect how likely the person is to achieve that potential.
45
Evolution and behaviour - biological approach
bio psychologists believe that physical characteristics and behaviour evolve in humans as individuals within a species will naturally differ from eachother and at least some of this variation is inherited. Theory of natural selection provides basis for concept that any genetically detrmined behaviour is the result of an individual drive to survive. Certain behaviour that are genetically coded will be passed on to future generations and will eventually become more and more widesperad in pop
46
The influence of neurochemistry on behaviour - biological approach
- neurochemistry is the biochemistry of the CNS.
-Neurotransmitters are thought to affect behaviour e.g. high levels of dopamine are related to schizophrenia
-levels of a specific hormone in the system can affect behaviour. This happens when the endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood stream which alters the activity of a cell and causes an individuals behaviour to change
47
biological approach A03
(+)Practical applications
## Footnote
Successful treatment - created...such as...and...
Such drugs are found to be effective in...
...(2009) found that...showed significantly beter results than...for reducing...symptoms
Strength as it demonstrates the contributuon that the bio approach has made to psychology and, as the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach...
successful treatment - created drugs such as anti-depressants and anti-anxiety drugs. Such drugs are found to be effective in treating a range of psychological abnormalities e.g. Soomro et al. (2009) found that SSRIs showed significantly better results than a placebo for reducing depressive symptoms. strength as it demonstrates the contribution that the bio approach has made to psychology and, as the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach, its effectiveness suggests that the approach must have some validity and merit.
48
biological approach
(-)Partially based on experiments that use non-human animals
Regularly uses animals such as rats and mice in their research as they are easy to control and manipulate and such experiments can establish cause and effect. Limitation as it may not provide a valid explanation of HB as culture, emotion and cognitions play a much greater role. Therefore may not provide an accurate explanation of HB
49
The psychodynamic approach assumptions
## Footnote
1)The driving force behind behaviour is what?
2)What motivates our behaviour e.g....
3)what determines our personality and adult behaviour?
4)what should psychoanalysis be used for?
1) the driving force behind behaviour is the unconscious mind
2)Insticts motivate our behaviour e.g. sexual (libido) and aggressive instics present from birth
3) Early childhood experiences determine our personality and adult behaviour
4)psychoanalysis should be used to make the unconscious mind conscious
50
psychodynamic approach: what causes anxiety and extreme nervousness
it is the product of unconscious conflict between the id and superego and to remain healthy it needs to be expressed in some way. It can be expressed in : dreams, neurotic symptoms (e.g.phobias) and defence mechanisms.
51
psychodynamic approach: id - what age (from and to) and its features
id: birth to around 18months. the childlike, selfish and hedonistic part of your personality ('pleasure principle')
52
psychodynamic approach: superego - what age (from and to) and its features
superego: 3 to 6 yrs. Acts as an individuals conscience. It is the opposite of the id as it feels guilt and holds someone back from behaving a certain way if it is thought to be wrong ('morality principle')
53
psychodynamic approach: ego - what age (from and to) and its features
ego: 18m to 3 yrs. Able to delay the id's drive for pleasure. It keeps the balance of influence etween the id and superego ('reality principle')
54
Sychodynamic approach: define defence mechanisms and what are they called
defence mechanisms are everyday methods we use unconsciously to reduce anxiety. The ego uses defence mechanisms to manage the demands of the id and the superego to reduce unconscious conflict. The three defence mechanisms are: repression, denial and displacement
55
The psychodynamic approach: defence mechanisms - outline repression and its effect onbehaviour
a type of forgetting where a painful or disturbing memory is pushed into the unconscious mind where it is not accessible to the conscious mind. The memory still exists but at an unconscious level so the person is unaware of the anxiety it causes. Effect: There is no recall of the event or sitch but the repressed memory still affects behaviour without the person being consciously aware of it.
56
The psychodynamic approach: defence mechanisms - outline denial and its effect onbehaviour
refusal to accept the reality of an unpleasant situation.
effect: someone may believe that a negative situation is positive and it therefore should not cause anxiety (this is not positive thinking, merely a resistance to accept reality)
57
The psychodynamic approach: defence mechanisms - outline displacement and its effect onbehaviour
When the focus of a strong emotion is expressed onto a neutral person or object - a substitute object for the emotion is used (this is the bases for phobias according to freud)
Effect: someone may exhibit very strong emotion but focus it onto a uninvolved person or object
58
The psychodynamic approach: psychoanalysis
(classical psychoanalysis) A01
## Footnote
1)Why was it developed?
2)What are neurotic symptoms?
3)Psychoanalysis aims to...?
-was developed to treat neurosis .
-neurotic symptoms are the ego's attempts to somehow cope with unconscious coflict (e.g. by using defence machanisms)
-psychoanalysis aims to make the unconscious conflict conscious to strengthen the ego and help them to more effectively cope.
59
Pschodynamic approach: psychoanalysis - method (A01)
## Footnote
1)The therapist and pateint build up a...
2)Lets the patient...they don't make...and even...
3)As they start to reveal unconscious conflict their ego may...such as...or saying...
4)...is a good sign, psychoanalysists believe that this is a sign the therapy is...
-therapist and patient build up a therapeutic relationship. Lets the patiet talk; they don't make judgement and even sit behind the patient so they can't been seen by them. As they start to reveal unconscious conflict, their ego may use a defence mechanism (resistance) - such as refusing to speak or saying therapy is a waste of time. Resistance is a good sign, psychoanalysists believe that this is a sign the therapy is getting to the unconscious problems
60
Psychodynamic approach: what are the techniques used in classical psychoanalysis:
## Footnote
(Three techniques) d,f,p
1)dream interpretation
2)free association e.g. reads lists of words, says first word that comes to patients head, response not had time to be censored by the ego, any pause is a sign of ego censoring
3)projective techniques, such as the Rorschach ink blot test
61
The psychodynamic approach: psychosexual stages - A01
According to freud we all go through set stages of psychological and sexual development. They start at birth and end in late childhood. Characterised by the focus of the libido. Children require specific satisfaction or pleasure during each stage - this is called gratification. If they get too much or too little gratification during a stage they can become fixated, which can lead to a personality type e.g. oral personality, anal expulsive peronality ect
62
The psychodynamic approach: psychosexual stages - name and division of each stage in order
1)Oral: passive, aggressive
2)Anal: Expulsive, retentive
3)Phallic: oedipus or electra complex
4)Latent}no division
5)Genital}no division
63
The psychodynamic approach: psychosexual stages - age, focus of libido and description
1)Oral: 0-12m, focus - mouth, mothers breast is the object of desire
2)Anal: 1-3yrs, focus- anus, gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces
3)Phallic: 3-5yrs, focus - genitals, boys experience oedipal complex and girls go through the elctra complex
4)Latent: no focus, earlier conflicts are repressed
5)Genital: focus- genitals, sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
64
The psychodynamic approach: psychosexual stages - the effect on adult behaviour
1)Oral fixation - smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical.
2)Anal expulsive - thoughtless, messy.
Anal retentive - obsessive, perfectionist
3)Phallic personality - narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual.
4)no effect
5)Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
65
Humanistic approach assumptions
## Footnote
1)Every person is..and because of this, psychology should focus on...
2)Each person is a...and...being. People have...and are...to chose what they do
3)Humans should be viewed as a...and not...Therefore, people must be looked at from a...perspective rather than trying to...behaviour into...as attempting to do so results in the..
4)The... methods is not a valid way to study human behaviour as it tries to be too...- humans are...in the ways they...and...
1)every person is unique and, because of this, psychology should focus on the subjective experiences, feelings and thoughts of a person. (ideographic approach)
2)each person is a rational and conscious being. People have freewill and are free to choose what they do
3)Humans should be viewed as a whole and not reduced to component parts. Therefore people must be looked at from a holistic perspective rather than trying to reduce behaviour into smaller elements as attempting to do so results in the whole person being lost.
4)The scientific method is not a valid way to study human behaviour as it tries to be too objective - humans are subjective in the ways they think and behave.
66
Humanistic approach: define active agents
## Footnote
The...approach suggests humans are active agents who have the ability to determine their own...and that any individual is therefore ultimately in charge of how they...through...Therefore it is important to study the...of the individual and so reject...methodology
the humanistic approach suggests humans are active agents who have the ability to determine their own development and that any individual is therefore ultimately in charger of how they develop through life. therefore it is important to study the uniqueness of the individual and so reject scientific methodology.
67
Humanistic approach: self-actualisation A01
(HA= humanistic approach and HP = humanistic pschologists)
## Footnote
HP believe every person has the innate tendency to try to... which is when they try and reach their...(highest level of ...)
HPs regard...as an essential part of what it is to be..and believe that this is the path to...since... is concerned with developing and changing to become... .... and...
Rogers and Maslow both believed that this process is...to each individual and suggested that not everyone will...to achieve...as there are more important... and... barriers that may prevent it.
Hp believe every person has the innate tendancy to try to self-actualise. Which is when they attempt to achieve their full potential (highest level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs).
Humanistic psychologists regard personal growth as an essential part of what it is to be human and believe that this is the path to self-actualisation since personal growth is concerned with developing and changing to become fulfilled, satisfied, and goal-orientated.
-Rogers and Maslow both believed that this process is unique to each individual and suggested that not everyone will manage
to achieve self-actualisation as there are important physical and
psychological barriers that may prevent it.
68
Humanistic approach: carl Rogers theory of self-actualisation
to reach SA it is important for the person to be fully functioning. This means they have the ability to overcome any barriers that occur in the environment or fom within. He regarded SA as an ideal and as unattainable for most. Instead, he focused on the lifelong process of changing in ways designed to help an individual to realise their full potential.
69
Rogers identififed five characteristics of the fully functioning person. what are these?
## Footnote
(five things)
1)Is open to experience: both negative and positive are accepted. Negative feelings arenot denied but worked through
2)Lives existentially: is in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding judging preconceptions. Being able to fully appreciate the present, not always looking back to the past or forward to the future
3)trust feelings: regards their own decisions as correct and trusts themselves to make the rigt choices.
4)Is creative: involves the ability to adjust to changes andseek new experiences
5)Has a fulfilled life: The person is happy and satisfied with life and is open to new challenges and experiences
70
Humanistic approach: maslows hierarchy of needs A01
-In rder to achieve our primary goal of self-actualisation (a growth need), a number of other deficiency needs must be met first. Each stage must be successfully achieved before moving on to the next stage and always striving to meet needs.
-self actualisation is not permenant and if any of the lower level nees are no longer met, they we cease to be self-actualised
71
What is the order of Maslows hierarchy of needs
psychological needs -> safety needs -> belongingness and love needs -> esteem needs -> self-actualisation
72
Humanistic approach: the three selves (roger)
-we have 3 selves which need to intergrate to achieve self-actualisation:
1)The self-concept: how you percieve yourself to be. largely based on experience e.g.conditions of worth or unconditional positive regard (UPR)from parents.
2)The ideal self: the person you wish to be. Consists of goals and ambitions in life and is dynamic (forever changing)
3)The real self: the person you actually are. Consists of actual skills and abilities as well as limitations. The 'you' that if all goes well, you do in fact percieve yourself to be.However, if you haven't experience UPR as a child it may be necessary to engage in person-centered therapy for you to understand who your real self is.
73
Humanistic approach: Rogers theory of congruence
need to be congruent to achieve self-actualisation. To achieve congruence, an individual needs to close the gap between their ideal self, real self, and self concept . Can only happen if they have an accurate view of who they are (self-concept) and have a more achievable and realistic ideal self. This may only happen once the individual has experienced unconditional positive regard from a therapist during cliet-centred therapy.
74
Roger's theory of The Role of conditions of worth
-assumes that all individuals need unconditional positive regard as it is essential to the development of a well-adjusted adult. he believe that this should come from the mother but that it could also come from other family members or even a therapist
75
Roger's theory of The Role of Conditions of worth: what does roger say to explain what causes most of the issues we experience as adults such as low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness ?
can be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard and the conditions of worth put on us by our parents
76
What according to Roger can encourage an individual to have a negative self-concept ?
A parent who sets boundaries or limits on their love for their child (conditional positive regard) because they feel that there are requirements that need to be met to be loved (conditions of worth)
-These conditions of worth can be real or perceived by the individual but either way it may prevent them from achieving self-actualisation
77
The influence of counselling psychology: what did rogers create to help encourage individuals achieve congruence?
person-centred therapy which focuses on the individuals whole life course and sees the individual as the expert of their own thoughts and feelings.
78
A01: person centred therapy
it is non-directive and encourages the person to find their own solutions within a therapeutic setting that is supportive and non-judgemental.
-Helps a person become congruent by treating them with unconditional positive regard and empathy therefore restoring the lack experienced in infancy.
-the client must feel that they are able to say whatever they want without judgement which enables them to realise the barriers to becoming congruent, then work through them and remove them.
79
A03 Wundt
(-) Limitation of Wundt's research method is that it was not scientific
Many psychologists (particularly behaviourists) criticised Wundt's use of introspection because it is a non-empirical subjective method (relied primarily on non-observable responses). Although ptps could report on their conscious experiences, the processes themselves (e.g. memory, perception) were considered to be unobservable. Wundt's approach ultimately failed because of the lack of reliability of his methods. Limitation because, he did not use scientific methods, his reserach cannot be properly replicated and the introspection 'experimental' results were not reliably reproduced by other researchers in other labs.
80
A03 Wundt
(+)some aspects of Wundt's research would still be considered scientific
For instance, he recorded the introspection within a controlled lab. He also standardised his procedures so that all ptps received the same info and were tested in the same way. Strength as for this reason Wundt's research can be considered a forerunner to the later scientific approaches in psychology that were to come.
81
A03 Wundt
(-)low ecological validity
many psychologists (particularly those favouring the humanistic approach) believe that concentrating purely on objective and controlled methods does not reveal a great deal about how people behave in natural settings particularly as much of the subjective matter of psychology is unobservable (e.g. the mind) and therefore cannot be measured in an empirical way. Limitation because, although such research is likely to be valid and, as psychologists aim to investigate realistic human behaviour, it is arguably pointless to adopt a purely scientific approach. Many psychologists agree that the most effective approach is to use a range of different methods to investigate one aim/hypothesis so that they gather reliable and valid data to test a theory. This is called triangulation.
82
A03 Wundt
(+)A strength of introspection is that it is still being used as a useful method by modern psychologists.
## Footnote
For example,... et al (2003) used introspective methods as a way of making '...' a measurable phenomenon. They gave a group of teenagers...that wen off during...times throughout the say, ... ptpts and requiring them to write down their...and...in the...before the...
Most of the entries indicated that the teens were ... rather than...
Strength as such research demonstrates how introspection is a useful tool and an be used with...methds to provide a greater understanding of...
The fact that introspection is still being used in ... psychology demonstrates that ...-... influence Wundt has had on the discipline of psychology
For example, Hunter et al (2003) used introspective methods as a way of making 'Happiness' a measurable phenomenon. They gave a group of teenagers beepers that went off during random times throughout the day, surprising ptps and requiring them to write down their thoughts and feelings in the moment before the beep. Most of the entries indicated that the teens were unhappy rather than happy. Strength because such research demonstrates how introspection is a useful tool and can be used with scientific methods to provide a greater understanding of human behaviour. The fact that introspection is still being used in contemporary psychology demonstrates that long-lasting influence that Wundt has had on the discipline of psychology.
83
A03 SLT
(+)Supported by evidence
For example, Bandura demonstrated that children who observed an aggressive model behaved more aggressively than children who observed a non-aggressive model and there was also a greater level of imitation of same-sex models. Strength as this research suggests that SLT provides an accurate explanation of aggression and it also might be able to accurately explain other behaviours.
84
A03 SLT
(+)provides a more holistic and less deterministic view of behaviour than operant or classical conditioning which many psychologists favour
Strength of SLT is that it acknowledges the role of cognitions in behaviour. Bandura emphasised the role of mediating processes in behaviour and suggested that cognitions intervene between stimulus and response. The implication of this is that there are more than one factor causing the behaviour and the individual has set at least one control over their actions. Strength as it provides a more holistic and...
85
A03 SLT
(+)Enables us to understand cultural differences in behaviour
SLT principles can help us understand the diversity of cultural norms across different cultures. The theory helps us to understand how individuals will display different behaviours as a result of being exposed to different models and this can help us to understand how cultural norms are transmitted through a particular society. Strength as it enhances our understanding of a number of different behaviours for example, how children acquire their gender role.
86
A03 SLT
(-)Favours only the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate
Bandura suggested that we learn behaviour through observation and vicarious reinforcement and this claim ignores the wealth of evidence that suggests that bio factors also contribute to behaviour (e.g. genes or hormones). Limitation as it takes a very one-sided view and bandura is criticised for ignoring the fact that in his research, boys were more aggressive than girls regardless of the specifics or the experimental setting. These findings suggest that there is a biological component to aggression but Bandura fails to consider this within his theory.
87
A03 Skinner
(-)Non-human animals + counter
(-)Critics claim that Skinners reliance on rats and pigeons meant that his studies revealed little about human behaviour. Such psychologists claim that unlike other animals, humans have free will and their behaviour is not determined by positive and negative reinforcement in the same way.
However, skinner argued that free will was merely an illusion and that all behaviour is the product of external influences so testing animals is a valid way to investigate human behaviour.
88
A03 Behaviourist approach
(+)Practical applications and has produced successful treatments for phobias and patients in institutions (CLASSICAL CONDITIONING ONLY)
CC- led to development of SD which works by eliminating a learnt anxious response (CR) that is associated with a feared object or situation (CS). The therapist tries to replace the learnt maladaptive response (anxiety) with a more positive response (relaxation) so that the patient is no longer anxious in the presence of the feared object.
89
A03 Behaviourist approach
(+)Practical applications and has produced successful treatments for phobias and patients institutions (OPERANT CONDITIONING ONLY) + Link
OC- led to use of token economy systems in institutions to reward appropriate behaviour with tokens that are exchanged for privileges. treatments like these are useful for patients that lack the insight into their condition and are not capable of talking about their problems.
These treatments have been found to be effected for a range of conditions and demonstrates the contribution that the behaviourist approach has made to psychology. As the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach, its effectiveness suggests that the approach must have some validity and merit.
90
A03 the behaviourist approach
(-)Oversimplistic
over-simplistic as it favours the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate. Behavioural psychologists believe that behaviour is learned through CC and OC and they therefore ignore the wealth of evidence that suggests that biological factors also contribute (e.g. genes or hormones). Limitation as it takes a very one-sided view of human behaviour and does not provide a holistic explanation. The approach ignores any evidence to suggest that behaviour is caused by nature and many psychologists disagree with this standpoint.
91
A03 the behaviourist approach
(+)Supported by evidence
For example, Skinner demonstrated how positive and negative reinforcement can condition the behaviour of rats. He rewarded the rat each time it pressed a lever and this encouraged it to repeat the behaviour. He also conditioned the rat to press a lever to avoid the punishment of electrocution.
For example, Pavlov classical conditioned a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell by ringing a bell each time he fed the dog. After many repetitions the dog eventually learned to associate the bell with food and would salivate at the sound of the bell alone.
Therefore, these provide strong evidence to support the behaviourist approach as they provide scientific evidence to support the claim that behaviour is environmentally determined and learnt through operant and classical conditioning.
92
A03 the behaviourist approach
(-)Deterministic (supports the determinism side of the determinism vs freewill debate)
Behavioural psychologists claim that human behaviour is the product of external influences (environmental determinism) and, as the individual cannot control these processes, they cannot be held responsible for their own behaviour. Skinner argued that freewill was merely an illusion and he believed that human behaviour is caused by factors that are out of the individual’s control. Limitation because many psychologists would disagree with this view and believe that humans have the freewill to choose how to behave e.g. humanistic psychologists.
93
A03 cognitivist approach
(+)Mostly uses human ptps
This is different to the behaviourist and biological approach whose research often studies animals. Strength because it is possible to generalise the results from such research to human behaviour and suggests that the cognitive approach might provide a more valid explanation of human behaviour than the other approaches.
94
A03 cognitivist approach
(+)Uses scientific methods when investigating human behaviour and assumptions are based on strong empirical evidence
Include counter
## Footnote
Uses ... as its main method of investigation which provides researchers with a... method for understanding how the... works. For example,.... and ... conducted a lab experiment to test the... of...memory by asking ptpts to recall...after intervals of...or...seconds in controlled la conditions. Strength as the assumptions of the approach are based on research that establishes...and...and is likely to be... and...
The approach has therefore...the scientific...of... and has led to... progress within the discipline.
However, tasks often lack... validity such experiments use...test... that are relatively... in ... life
Limitation because, as this research in unlikely to reflect the participants... behaviour, the assumptions of the approach might not be... and may not... explain the... of real life behaviour.
uses experiments as its main method of investigation which provides researchers with a rigorous method for understanding how the mind works. For example Peterson and Peterson’s conducted a lab experiment to test the duration of short-term memory by asking participants to recall trigrams after intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds in controlled conditions. Strength as the assumptions of the approach are based on research that establishes cause and effect and is likely to be objective and reliable. The approach has therefore enhanced the scientific status of psychology and has led to scientific progress within the discipline.
However, tasks often lack ecological validity Such experiments use artificial test materials that are relatively meaningless in everyday life. Limitation because, as this research is unlikely to reflect the participants’ genuine behaviour, the assumptions of the approach might not be valid and may not adequately explain the complexities of real life behaviour.
95
A03 cognitivist approach
(-)Cognitive reductionism
## Footnote
The approach may demonstrate... reductionism because it argues all... no matter how.. can be... to simple... ... like... or...
You could also argue that it demonstrates... reductionism when we treat the... ... as a..., we fail to consider the impact of.... on...
Limitation because the approach may not provide a... explanation of huan bahviour
The approach may demonstrate Cognitive Reductionism because it argues all behaviour, no matter how complex, can be reduced to simple cognitive processes like memory or perception. You could also argue that it demonstrates Machine Reductionism when we treat the human mind as a computer, we fail to consider the impact of emotion on decisions. Limitation because the approach may not provide a complete explanation of human behaviour.
96
A03 Biological approach
(+)Uses the scientific method when investigating human behaviour
and the assumptions are based on strong empirical evidence.
The approach uses experiments as its main method of investigation and also adopts techniques that are largely objective such as brain scans. The use of such sophisticated imaging has increased the precision and objectivity of research in this area. Strength as the assumptions of the approach are based on research that establishes cause and effect and is likely to be objective and reliable. The approach has therefore enhanced the scientific status of psychology and has led to scientific progress within the discipline.
97
A03 Biological approach
(-)Reductionist side of the reductionism vs holism debate
Reductionist as it attempts to explain complex HB by reducing it down to its smallest components such as actions of genes, neurochemistry and hormones. Limitation as it does not provide a holistic explanation and many psych would agree with this standpoint (particularly humanist psych)
98
A03 psychosexual stages of development
(+)Contribution to society
This is because it has drawn attention to the possible long-term effects of traumatic events in childhood such as child abuse and parental separation. Strength because it has contributed to the well-being of people.
99
A03 psychosexual stages of development
(-)Gender bias
The theory focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of female psychosexual development. Limitation as it is a gender biased theory and may not apply to females. The theory can therefore be argued to be an example of androcentrism.
100
A03 psychosexual stages of development
(-)Very difficult to test scientifically
Concepts such as the libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested. Future predictions based on the theory are too vague and also cannot be tested. The research that has been conducted tends not to support Freud's theory. limitation as there is very little scientific evidence for the theory. Without scientific evidence there is no way of establishing whether the theory is valid or not.
101
A03 psychosexual stages of development
(-)Based upon case studies
Freud’s case studies used the recollections of his adult patients which he interpreted, not on actual observation and study of children. His studies were biased and not empirical research. Limitation as they do not provide strong scientific evidence for the theory. Again without scientific evidence there is no way of establishing whether the theory is valid or not.
102
A03 Psychodynamic approach
(-)Not easy to empirically test
Freud’s emphasis on early childhood means that retrospective case history evidence is used, the results of which can be confounded by memory bias and individual’s subjective interpretation of their own life. Furthermore, concepts such as the id, ego and superego are not empirical and Freud’s hypotheses are not fully operationalised. His claims about the cause of psychopathology are not directly verifiable and it is possible that his assumptions might be incorrect. The psychodynamic theory therefore lacks scientific rigour and many psychologists therefore do not accept it as a valid theory.
103
A03 Psychodynamic approach
(+)Produced successful treatments
## Footnote
Frued... the use of a ... approach to treating... ... which has had a ... lasting impact on psychology and ...
Many psychologists still use a form of... to treat... psychological disorders (e.g....to treat depression) and research has shown it to be effective. For example, ...(1971) found that ... of his patients benefitted from psychoanalysis compared to... from other types of psychotherapies. Strength because the approach clearly has... ... and, as the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach, the approach must have some... and ...
Freud pioneered the use of a psychological approach to treating mental disorders which has had a profound and lasting impact on psychology and psychiatry. Many psychologists still use a form
of psychoanalysis to treat various psychological disorders (e.g. PIT to treat depression) and research has shown it to be effective e.g. Bergin (1971) found that 80% of patients benefited from psychoanalysis compared to 65% from other types of psychotherapies. Strength because the approach clearly has practical application and, as the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach, the approach must have some merit and validity.
104
A03 Psychodynamic approach
(-)Counter to successful PA
## Footnote
However, there are... findings on the effectiveness of psychoanalysis.
...(1985) provided findings from a range of studies that show psychoanalysis was.... ... .... than a .... treatment (one that has ... theraputic effect). On balance, it would appear that... can work if a person ... in ... .... ..., otherwise it is .... to ...
As such, the approach is more a ... of... than a .... .... of behaviour.
However, there are contradictory findings on the effectiveness of Psychoanalysis. Hysenck (1985) provided findings from a range of studies that show Psychoanalysis was no more effective than a
placebo treatment (one that has no therapeutic effect). On balance, it would appear that Psychoanalysis can work if a person believes in Freud’s Psychodynamic approach, otherwise it is unlikely to work. As
such the approach is more a system of belief than a scientific explanation of behaviour.
105
A03 Psychodynamic approach
(-)Deterministic
Freud believed that abnormality is rooted in childhood conflict that is stored in an individual’s unconscious and it is therefore out of the individual’s control. The approach suggests that the person is a passive participant in their own life/mental health. Limitation as, if the individual believes that their abnormality is pre-determined and out of their control, they are unlikely to make any life changes to make themselves better. Furthermore, this approach would be criticised by psychologists who favour the freewill approach such as humanist psychologists who believe that humans have the ability to choose how to behave in any given situation.
106
A03 Humanistic approach
(+)It has made a significant contribution to psychology
The humanist approach put forward an alternative viewpoint to other approaches in psychology by suggesting that people are active agents who are able to change and determine their own development. Humanistic psychology has had a great influence on psychology by promoting the idea of personal responsibility, and concepts such as self-actualisation have been widely accepted. Furthermore, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been very influential both within and outside of the world of psychology. Strength because without the contribution of this approach to psychology our knowledge of human behaviour would be limited.
107
A03 Humanistic approach
(+)produced successful practical applications
## Footnote
There is evidence to suggest that ...-... therpay and other therapies developed from the approach are... and its ... has increased in ... years. For example, ...& ...(1994) found that client-centered therapies were successful in treating... for some people. Strength as...
There is evidence to suggest that client-centered therapy and other therapies developed from the approach are effective and its popularity has increased in recent years. For example, Sexton & Whiston (1994) found that client-centered therapies were successful in treating anxiety for some people. strength because the approach clearly has a practical application and, as the treatment is based on
the assumptions of the approach, its effectiveness indicates that the approach must have at least some validity.
108
A03 Humanistic approach
(-)Has been criticised for rejecting the scientific approach and
its failure to use the experimental method. Include counter
As the humanistic approach maintains that it is more informative to study subjective human experience there is little objective evidence to support its assumptions. This is a limitation because the subjective experience of an individual is difficult to test so the approach lacks scientific rigour.
However, humanistic psychologists reject scientific methodology and do not try to be objective. Humanists believe that subjective methods are a more appropriate and valid means of studying the reality of human experience.
109
A03 Humanistic approach
(-)Criticised for being culturally biased
The approach promotes concepts such as personal growth and self-actualisation that are valued in western (individualist) societies and critics claim that the notion of a fully-functioning person is a product of western culture. In collectivist cultures, where people often prioritise the needs of the group over their own, such concepts may not be relevant. limitation because the approach may not provide a valid theory of human behaviour in all cultures and is arguably more useful and relevant in individualistic societies.
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A01 Maslows hierarchy of needs
* Maslow suggested that, in order to achieve our primary goal of self-actualisation (a growth need), a number of other deficiency
needs must be met first.
* These range from physiological needs at the bottom of the hierarchy and self-esteem needs at the top (before self actualisation).
* He suggested that each stage must be successfully achieved before moving onto the next and that each individual is always striving to meet these needs in an attempt to selfactualise.
* Maslow characterised life as a series of peak experiences (moments of great achievement or elation that happen when all deficiency needs are satisfied).
* He also suggested that self-actualisation is not permanent and that, if any of the lower levels of need are no longer met, an individual
will cease to be self-actualised.
Physiological needs -> safety needs -> love and belonging -> esteem ->self actualisation
