Biopsychology Flashcards

Question

Testes

Answer 1

Facilitate the release of testosterone

Answer 2

Facilitate the release of oestrogen and progesterone

Answer 3

produces thyroxine, which increases heart rate and metabolic rate

Answer 4

produces melatonin, which may help regulate the wake-sleep cycle

Answer 5

-stressor -hypothalamus stimulates the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) -sympathetic nerves cause the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline into the bloodstream -increase levels of oxygen and glucose in the blood and reduces activity in the digestive system

Answer 6

responsible for processing the different types of visual information, such as colour, shape or movement -both hemispheres contralateral

Answer 7

damage to left side, for example, can produce blindness in part of the right visual field in both eyes

Answer 8

concerned with hearing and is located in the temporal lobes of both sides of the brain. It processes sound-based information such as pitch and volume

Answer 9

May produce hearing loss, the more extensive the damage, the more extensive the hearing loss

Answer 10

responsible for voluntary motor movements -in the frontal lobe along the precentral gyrus -both hemispheres contralateral

Answer 11

loss of control over fine movements.

Answer 12

detects sensory events arising from different regions of the body. Using sensory information from the skin, it produces sensations of touch, pressure, pain, and heat, which it then localises to specific body regions. -postcentral gyrus, in the parietal lobe

Answer 13

Decreased sensitivity e.g.the inability to identify objects by touch

Answer 14

critical for speech production -posterior portion of the left frontal lobe

Answer 15

Brocas aphasia, which is characerised by speech that is slow, laborious, and lacking in fluency

Answer 16

responsible for language comprehension and is in the left temporal lobe

Answer 17

(+)supporting evidence (from brain scans ) (+)case study of Tan (-)contradictory evidence (-)unrepresentative

Answer 18

wernickes aphasia, where patients would often produce nonsense words as part of the content of their normal speech

Answer 19

Peterson et al used brain scans to demonstrate how Wernicke's area was active during a listening task and Broca's area was active during a reading task. strength of theory provides objective evidence to suggest that specific areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviours, cognitive processes or activities. To further this, a strength of Peterson et al’s research is that it is highly empirical. Brain scans provide objective evidence to show that different areas of the brain were active during a listening and reading task. This is a strength because these findings provide verifiable evidence for LOF. This study therefore provides strong evidence of localisation in the brain, which supports the theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for different processes.

Answer 20

Broca (1861) patient could only speak 1 word (tan) but could easily understand speech. After death performed autopsy and found substantial damage towards the base of the frontal lobe. Broca then investigated more than 12 cases had the same symptoms as tan found had damage to same area. Broca concluded this area was responsible for speech production. Strength of LOF theory because there CS demonstrate that different functions are located in specific areas of the brain.

Answer 21

Lashley (1950) removed areas of the cortex in rats which were learning a maze. No area was proven to be more important than any other in terms of the rats ability to learn the maze. Process of learning appeared to require every part of the cortex, rather than a specific area. Contradicts theory of LOF because suggests some functions such as learning are too complex to be localised and require the whole of the brain, which supports the holistic brain theory and contradicts the idea of localisation. However, it may be difficult to extrapolate these findings to humans due to the human brain much more sophisticated than that of a rat. As such, the research only demonstrates that LOF is not apparent in rats, but this does not mean the same is true for humans. Therefore, this is weak evidence to contradict the theory of LOF.

Answer 22

case studies such as tan are, by their very nature, unrepresentative. Not certain they are typical of the population from which they are drawn. Cannot be certain that LO brain F demonstrated by Tan would be apparent in other human beings. These studies therefore do not prove that brain function is localised in the way the theory suggests.

Answer 23

Broca investigated 13+ cases that demonstrated LOF that there is reasonable evidence to suggest that different areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviours, cognitive processes or activities.

Answer 24

The idea that the two hemispheres are functionally different and certain mental processes and behaviours are mainly controlled by one hemisphere rather than the other. The two hemispheres are connected through bundles of nerve fibres such as the corpus callosum - allows the two hemispheres to communicate by sending information to and from each other.

Answer 25

refers to the brains tendency to change or adapt (functionally and physically) because of experience and new learning. This generally involves the growth of new connections between neurons

Answer 26

By developing new connections and pruning away any weak ones, the brain can constantly adapt to a changing environment. This processes of 'deleting' rarely used connections is known as 'synaptic pruning'

Answer 27

-Maguire et el (2000) -16 male London taxi drivers and 50 male non-taxi drivers (control group). MRI scanner to calculate the amount of grey matter in the brain of taxi drivers and control group. -The posterior hippocampus of taxi drivers was significantly larger to those of the control group. This part of the brain is associated with spatial and navigational skills. -The posterior hippocampal volume was positively correlated with the amount of time they had spent as a taxi driver (a measure of the extent of their experience)

Answer 28

(+)Research is highly empirical (-)Population validity (+)Practical applications (-)Correlation

Answer 29

Brain scans provide objective evidence to show that the cab drivers studied have a significantly greater volume of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus than the control group. These findings provide verifiable evidence for brain plasticity and so suggest that the conclusions draw about brain plasticity are valid

Answer 30

- small sample of 16 male London taxi drivers -not representative of the population from which they were drawn -Maguires conclusion that the brain changes physically as a result of experience may not be valid. (H) no evidence to suggest that her sample was unrepresentative - suggests lack of pop validity is not really an issue. (H) since sample only consisted of males so its possible findings are not applicable to females

Answer 31

-contributed to the field of neurorehabilitation -Following injury, the brains spontaneous recovery tends to slow down after a number of weeks so forms of physical therapy (such as electrical stimulation of the brain) may be requires in order to maintain improvements of functioning. -Success of such therapies, since they are based on research into plasticity, suggest that the theory is valid

Answer 32

Maguires evidence is only correlational - means she has not proven that the taxi driver's brains have changed as a direct result of their experience - may be due to an other factor. (H)the correlation between their occupation and enhanced grey matter was very clear which suggests that despite only being correlational, Maguires evidence is valid

Answer 33

a form of plasticity. Following damage through trauma, the brain can redistribute or transfer functions usually performed by a damaged area(s) to other, undamaged area(s)

Answer 34

The brain can re-wire and reorganise itself by forming new synaptic connections close to the area of damage. Secondary neural pathways that would not typically be used to carry out certain functions are activated to enable functioning to continue, often in the same way as before.

Answer 35

The growth of new nerve endings which connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways

Answer 36

This occurs when axons that do a similar job become aroused to a higher level to compensate for the ones that are lost. However, this can have the unfortunate consequence of eversensitivity to messages relating to pain

Answer 37

Means that specific tasks can still be performed. For example, if Brocas area was damaged, on the left side of the brain, the right sided equivalent would carry out its functions. After a period, functionality may then shift back to the left side.

Answer 38

-Danelli et al (2013) -EB operated on at age 2.5 to remove a large tumour from his LH. Due to size of tumour virtually entire LH was removed, and his linguistic abilities disappeared. He then underwent a long rehabilitation programme to recover his language skills. -language started to improve around the age of 5. When tested again at the age of 17 lang abilities were compared with 'normal' controls. Danelli found that his RH had compensated for his LH and he was functioning well linguistically. Except for few minor grammatical errors and lack of speed when asked to name objects in a pic

Answer 39

(-)Case study (+)Practical applications - neurorehabilitation (-)correlational - Maguire et al (+) Research is highly empirical

Answer 40

unrepresentative - no certainty that they are typical of the population from which they are drawn -Cannot be certain that the functional brain recovery demonstrated by EB would occur in other human beings - older people particularly -This study therefore does not prove that functional recovery is possible (H)there is no evidence to suggest that EB is unrepresentative and hence the study of Danelli et al provides reasonable evidence in support of this theory

Answer 41

measures changes in brain activity while a person performs a task. It does this by measuring changes in blood flow and blood oxygenation levels. If a particular area of the brain becomes more active, there is an increased demand for oxygen in that area.

Answer 42

records electrical activity in the brain. It does this by placing electrodes on the scalp to detect small electrical charges resulting from the activity of brain cells. When the electrical signals from the electrodes are graphed over a period of time, the resulting representation is called an EEG.

Answer 43

This uses the same technique as an EEG but it detects neuronal activity in response to a stimulus

Answer 44

technique that involves the analysis of a persons brain following their death. Which allows research onto deeper regions of the brain e.g. the hippocampus and the hypothalamus

Answer 45

fMRI's (-)poor temporal resolution 1-4 seconds. less accurate validity fMRI (+) Spatial resolution very accurate 1-2mm - theories based on research using fMRI may be more valid due to the accuracy of the procedure EEG/ERP (+)very accurate temporal resolution 1-10milliseconds which is more accurate than other techniques (-)spatial resolution - can only pinpoint activity to superficial, general regions of the brain . Limited validity lacks accuracy

Answer 46

Sperry and Gazzaniga (1967) * The experiment involved comparing the performance of 11 split-brain patients who had undergone surgery for their epilepsy to people with no hemisphere de-connection and no history of epilepsy. * In lab conditions, participants were asked to fixate on a dot in the centre of a screen while information (a word or image) was presented to either the left or right visual field for less than 1/10 of a second. * They would then be asked to make responses with their left hand (controlled by their right hemisphere), their right hand (controlled by their left hemisphere) or verbally (which is controlled by their left hemisphere) without being able to see what their hands were doing.

Answer 47

1. When a picture of an object was shown to a patient’s right visual field the patient could easily described what was seen. However, if the same object was shown to the left visual field the patient typically reported that there was nothing there - although they were able to select a matching object from a grab-bag of different objects using their left hand. 2. If two words were presented simultaneously on either side of the visual field the patient would write the word on the left with their left hand and say the word on the right. 3. When asked to match a face from a series of other faces, the picture processed by the right hemisphere was consistently selected and the pictured presented to the left hemisphere was consistently ignored.

Answer 48

(+)Quasi (-)population validity

Answer 49

strength of Sperry & Gazzaniga’s research is that it is a quasi-experiment as they were able to take advantage of a naturally occurring variable as the epileptic patients had suffered hemisphere disconnection. When they conducted their experiment they were able to have high control over the experimental environment and so demonstrate the effect that hemisphere disconnection had on brain function. Since hemisphere disconnection (IV) was regarded as the only significant difference between the two groups studied by S&G, the observed difference in performance (DV) was seen as having been caused by this disconnection so providing support for the theory of hemispheric lateralisation. Consequently, it can be argued that this study has high internal validity.

Answer 50

11 split-brain patients and 11 control, which is a small sample size and may not be representative of how other people’s brains function. In addition, the participants’ epilepsy may have caused changes in their brains which are not present in the brains of others – another reason why the sample may be unrepresentative and so possibly not applicable to other people. Consequently, it can be argued that this study lacks external validity.

Answer 51

The body's internal biological clocks that regulate many of our biological rhythms, such as the influence of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) on the sleep/wake cycle or hormones on the menstrual cycle

Answer 52

External factors in the environment such as light that reset our biological clocks through a process known as entrainment.

Answer 53

a biological rhythm that lasts about 24hours, which regulates several bodily processes such as the sleep/wake cycle and core changes in body temperatures

Answer 54

-controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus -light and darkness (EZ's) are the external signals that determine when we feel the need to sleep/wake up -Circadian rhythm also dips and rises throughout the day & our strongest sleep drive is usually between 2-4am and 1-3pm -The free running internal circadian 'clock' maintains a cycle of 24-25 hours even in the absence of external cues such as light.

Answer 55

-one of the best indicators of the circadian rhythm -lowest (approx 36degrees) at about 4.30am and highest around 6pm -During normal CR, sleep occurs when the core temperature begins to drop, it then begins to rise during the last hours of sleep, promoting a feeling of alertness -small drop in CBT around 2pm-4pm

Answer 56

-Siffre spent 6m in cave w only artificial light, he had no clock but did have verbal contact with outside world -'free-running' internal body clock, which eventually settled into a sleep/wake cycle of 25-30 hours. -Lost track of how long he was in the cave, believing it was 1 month less than he had stayed in -Suggests in absence of EZ's such as natural light, CR is roughly maintained which supports the existence of an internal body clock.

Answer 57

(-)unrepresentative and low pop validity (only himself). Cannot be certain that his findings that EZ's and EP's work together are valid as they may not apply universally. However no reason to believe that he is different from the rest of the human race (-)had access to artificial light. May have been the artificial light maintaining the sleep-wake cycle. Czeizler et al altered ptps CR's down to 22hrs and up to 28hrs using a dim artificial light alone. & his conclusions that a 'free-running' Cr of around 24hrs may not be valid.

Answer 58

Siffre’s research supports the claim that humans have a circadian rhythm that lasts approximately 24 hours and is governed by an endogenous pacemaker. Siffre found that, when he isolated himself from all daylight and his internal body clock was allowed to ‘free-run’, it eventually settled into a sleep/wake cycle of 25-30 hours. Strength of the endogenous pacemaker theory because his results suggest that in the absence of EZ's such as natural light sources, circadian rhythms are roughly maintained which supports the existence of an internal body clock. However, Siffre did have access to artificial light which he assumed would not affect his SWC. This is a limitation of Siffre’s findings as it may have been the artificial light maintaining his sleep-wake cycle and therefore his conclusion that a ‘free-running’ circadian rhythm of around 24 hours exists may not be valid.

Answer 59

A type of biological rhythm with a frequency of less than one cycle in 24hours, such as menstrual cycle and seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

Answer 60

-has a frequency of less than one cycle in 24hours. -Has a duration of ore than 24hrs and this can vary between 23 and 36 days, but averages around 28days -Although this is an endogenous system (i.e. governed by monthly changes in hormone levels) there is evidence to suggest that the menstrual cycle can also be influenced by exogenous factors

Answer 61

-McClintock & Stern -20 women with a history of irregular periods -took samples of pheromones from 9 donor women at different stages of their menstrual cycles via cotton pas placed in armpit for at least 8hrs -then treated with alcohol and frozen to be rubbed on upper lip of other ptps -On day one they were each given a pad from the start of the menstrual cycle, on day 2 they were given the pad from the second day of cycle and so on -68% experienced changes to their cycle which brought them closer to the cycle of the 'odor donor' suggests cycle can be altered by communication with pheromones (exogenous factors)

Answer 62

Limited pop validity. Conclusion that men cyc can be altered by communication with pheromones (exogenous factors) may be invalid since their sample may be unrepresentative of wider pop. However, there is no evidence that this is, in fact the case. As such, it is reasonable to argue that the small sample size alone is not sufficient reason to discount the findings or conclusions of this research.

Answer 63

(+)supported by research (mcclintock and stern) (+)Practical applications- most effective treatment for SAD is phototherapy. This is a lightbox which stimulates very strong light in the morning and evening. It is thought to reset melatonin levels in people with SAD and relieves symptoms in up to 60% of sufferers (Eastman et al). Although there still remains some debate in relation to phototherapy, its apparent success suggests that infradian rhythms are indeed affected by EZ's such as light

Answer 64

A type of biological rhythm with a frequency of more than one cycle in 24hrs, such as the stages of sleep which span approximately 90minutes.

Answer 65

Psychologists have identified five distinct stages of sleep that span approximately 90 minutes – a cycle that continues throughout the course of night. Each of these stages is characterised by a different level of brain wave activity which can be monitored using an EEG: 1&2 (light sleep): light sleep, where the brain wave patterns start to slow down 3&4 (deep sleep):brain waves are even slower that in stages 1 and 2 stage 5: REM sleep, the body is paralysed yet brain activity speeds up significantly. Highly correlated with the experiences of dreaming

Answer 66

-Dement & Kleitman -7 makes 2 females were asked to report to the lab at bedtime where they were connected to an EEG which took measurements throughout their time asleep. Ptps were asked not to drink caffeinated drinks for the day before their sleep was investigated -Found all ptps had periods of REM every night. Also found high incidences of dream recall when awakened during REM periods and if awakened during other stages few reported dreaming. -Suggests that sleeps follows a typical pattern throughout the night

Answer 67

Dement & Kleitman only had a small sample of 9 people of whom only 2 were female. This means that the population validity of this sample is limited. As such, their conclusion that sleep follows a typical pattern throughout the night may be invalid since their sample may be unrepresentative of a wider population and hence may not apply to the sleep cycle of others. However, there is no evidence that this is, in fact the case. As such, it is reasonable to argue that the small sample size is not sufficient reason to discount the findings or conclusions of this research.

Answer 68

Dement and Kleitman connected seven adult males and two females to an EEG machine that took measurements throughout their time asleep and they found that all participants had periods of REM every night. They also found high incidences of dream recall when participants were awakened during REM periods of sleep and if awakened during other stages very few reported dreaming. Demonstrates how sleep follows a typical pattern throughout the night and suggests that ultradian rhythms do exist in humans. Replications of this study have also found similar findings.

Answer 69

Brain chemicals released from synaptic vesicles that relay signals across the synapse from one neuron to another. Neurotransmitters can be divided into those that perform an excitatory function and those that perform an inhibitory function.

Answer 70

Chemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and only affect target organs. They are produced in large quantities but disappear quickly.

Answer 71

Different hemispheres of the brain are responsible for different tasks e.g., the left side is responsible for language.

Answer 72

Research shows night workers experience reduced concentration around 6am meaning mistakes and accidents are more likely. research has also suggested a relationship between shift work and poor health e.g. they are 3x more likely to develop heart disease (Knutsson,2003).which may be in part due to the stress of adjusting to different sleep/wake patterns and the lack of poor quality sleep during the day. Strengths as research into sleep/wake cycle may have economic implications in terms of how to best manage worker productivity and safety.

Answer 73

For example, Czeisler et al (1999) found the sleep-wake cycles varied in some cases from 13 to 65hours. Duffy et al (2001) found that some people display a natural preference for going to bed early and rising early and others are the opposite. limitation of some research into circadian rhythms because it suggests that not everyone’s sleep-wake cycles are the same and therefore it is not possible to claim that all individuals have the same/similar EP's.

Answer 74

Siffre’s research – with himself as the sole participant – suffers from the fact that it is by its very nature potentially unrepresentative/has low population validity. Consequently, we cannot be certain that his findings in relation to the fact that EZ's and EP's work together are valid as they may apply universally. However, there is no reason to believe that Siffre is not, in fact, a normal member of the human race – and hence it is perfectly possible that his findings do indeed apply to others.

Answer 75

This means that they have not proven that a woman’s menstrual cycle can be altered by communication with pheromones (exogenous factors) as other factors may have been involved. However, there was clear evidence of a correlation between exposure to exogenous factors and an alteration in the menstrual cycle – although this evidence is limited by the fact that this correlational was not universal.

Answer 76

only 68% of the women experienced changes to their cycle which brought them closer to the cycle of their donor, which means 32% did not. For the conclusions to be unquestioningly accepted, a figure much closer to 100% would be needed. Suggest that Individual differences plays a significant role in determining the extent to which a woman's men cyc can be altered by communication with pheromones (exogenous factors)

Answer 77

many factors which affect men cyc including stress, diet and exercise. these might act as confounding variables, which means the pattern of synchronisation observed by them may have happened by no more than chance, meaning their conclusions that a woman's men cyc can be altered by communication with pheromones (exogenous factors) may be invalid

Answer 78

Strength of their research is that EEGs provide highly empirical data. EEGs provide objective evidence to show that sleep follows a typical pattern throughout the night. strength because these findings provide verifiable evidence for ultradian rhythms. Therefore, despite the small sample size, this study provides strong support for the existence of ultradian rhythms since it clearly demonstrates that sleep follows a typical pattern throughout the night – which is what the theory would predict. This conclusion is strengthened by the fact that replications of this study have produced similar findings.

Answer 79

There is evidence to suggest that sleep patterns may be biologically determined. For example, Tucker et al found large differences between individuals’ sleep patterns, which were consistent over 11 nights in a controlled sleep lab. Individuals also responded very differently to 36-hour periods of sleep deprivation. This suggests that sleep patterns may be at least partially determined by genes.

Answer 80

* The SCN is a tiny bundle of nerve cells located in the hypothalamus in each hemisphere of the brain. * It is influential in maintaining circadian rhythms such as the sleep/wake cycle. * Nerve fibres in the SCN are connected to the eye and so the SCN receives information about light. * This continues even when our eyes are closed as light can penetrate through the eyelids. * This enables the biological clock to adjust to changing patterns of daylight whilst we are asleep. * If our biological clock is running slow (e.g. the sun rises earlier than on the previous day) then morning light automatically adjusts the clock, putting its rhythm in step with the world outside.

Answer 81

* DeCoursey et al destroyed the SCN connections in the brains of 30 chipmunks. * The chipmunks were then returned to their natural environment and observed for 80 days. * The observations taken showed that the sleep-wake cycle of the chipmunks had disappeared. * In addition, by the end of the study a significant proportion of the chipmunks had been killed by predators – probably because they were awake and vulnerable when they should have been asleep.

Answer 82

* Morgan et al bred a strain of hamsters so that they had abnormal circadian rhythms of 20 hours instead of 24 hours. * SCN neurons from these abnormal hamsters were then transplanted into the brains of normal hamsters. * These normal hamsters then displayed the same abnormal circadian rhythm of 20 hours, showing that the transplanted SCN had imposed its pattern onto the recipients’ brains. * Furthermore, in a reverse experiment, when implanting SCN neurons from a normal hamster into the brain of an abnormal hamster, the recipient hamster’s circadian rhythm changed to 24 hours.

Answer 83

(-)Extrapolation issues - human brains far mor sophisticated than that of a hamster. Conclusions drawn in relation to the significance of EP's in maintaining circadian rhythms must be treated with caution (-)Unethical - The study of DeCoursey et al, for example, can be regarded as unethical. This is because it is evident that the chipmunks they used were exposed to considerable risk and subsequent harm when they were returned to their natural environment. It is a matter of debate if the significance of their findings is of sufficient value to justify the aversive procedures they employed.

Answer 84

For example, the Inuits of the Arctic Circle, who spend six months of the year in near total darkness, nevertheless have the same sleep/wake cycle all year long. This suggests that EP's are far more important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle than EZ's such as light.

Answer 85

For example, a case study conducted by Miles et. al. (1977) found that a young man blind from birth had an abnormal circadian rhythm of 24.9 hours despite exposure to social cues such as regular mealtimes. This suggests that social cues alone are insufficient to determine the sleep/wake cycle and that other factors must, therefore, be involved.

Biopsychology Flashcards

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