Approaches

Question 1

What are the assumptions of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 1

All behaviour is learned from environment and therefore can be changed
Only behaviour that is measurable and observable should be considered
It is useful to study animals as the same processes produce learning as humans

Question 2

What does the behaviourist approach include

Answer 2

Classical and operant conditioning (explanation in more depth in attachment/ psychopathology)

Question 3

Research support for classical conditioning (Pavlov’s dogs)

Answer 3

Pavlov was researching salivation in dogs when he discovered that initially, the dogs would only salivate when food was presented, however after he had been working with them for a while they would salivate when he entered the room. Pavlov created a pairing of a bell (neutral stimulus) with the food (unconditioned stimulus) so that the dogs created an association. When he rang the bell and presented no food, the conditioned response of salivation still happened.

He also discovered that after classical conditioning happens, a being will generalise so that other stimulus which is similar to the CS will cause the same CR (stimulus generalisation) However, after the conditioned stimulus is presented a few times in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus, the effect begins to ware off and the conditioned response is no longer produced. This is known as extinction

Question 4

Describe Skinners research into operant conditioning

Answer 4

Skinner investigated a group of rats in a cage. He found that when he introduced a lever which when pressed produces a food pellet, the rats quickly learnt that pressing the lever produced a reward, so would carry out this behaviour.This is known as positive reinforcement and the food pellets act as a positive reinforcer. When skinner sent constant electric shocks through a grille at the bottom of the rat’s cage and introduced a lever which when pressed stops the shocks, the rats also learnt this fairly quickly. This shows that rats can also be negatively reinforced

Question 5

What are the assumptions of social learning theory?

Answer 5

There is an interaction between the environment, behaviour and cognitive processes
Behaviour is learnt from a role model observation and imitation
There are four meditational processes involved which must happen between the role model displaying a behaviour and the behaviour being imitated (attention, retention, reproduction, motivation)

Question 6

What are the four components of social learning theory?

Answer 6

Identification, modelling, imitation, vicarious reinforcement

Question 7

What is identification?

Answer 7

A person finding a role model who they identify with, which is usually someone who they feel is similar to them in some way, or who has achieved something which they want to achieve in the future. Factors affecting likelihood of being a role model include: same gender, same ethnicity, physical attractiveness, higher status, celebrity status or greater expertise

Question 8

What is modelling?

Answer 8

A person watching their role model carrying out a behaviour and learning their behaviour

Question 9

What is imitation?

Answer 9

The physical act of a person carrying out a behaviour which they have learnt from their role model, duplicating exactly what has been displayed.

Question 10

What are the assumptions of the biological approach?

Answer 10

Everything psychological has a biological basis
All traits are inherited from our parents, we are also affected by evolution
To study the mind, we must study the physical brain
To understand human behaviour, we must study physiology (the structure of the brain) and processes (biochemistry)

Question 11

Example of influence of genetics on behaviour

Answer 11

The SERT gene- this means that a person has lower transmission of serotonin, which can cause OCD as it means they worry more which could lead to an obsession forming. The SERT gene can cause unwanted thoughts and repetitive behaviours

Question 12

What is the genotype?

Answer 12

The genetic make-up of a person has

Question 13

What is a phenotype?

Answer 13

The expression of the gene, interaction between the genotype and the environment

Question 14

Example of combination of genotype and phenotype

Answer 14

If a person inherits a faulty SERT gene, they will be prone to high levels of anxiety. If a person also experiences a stressful life event such as a bereavement, they may develop OCD

Question 15

Describe the difference between the different type of twins

Answer 15

Monozygotic twins (identical twins) are 100% genetically identical, which means that they share the same genotype, however the phenotype will be different
Dizygotic twins (non-identical twins) are only 50% genetically identical so their genotype will be different, their phenotype will also be different

Studies which use comparison of the two types of twins are useful for investigating the extent to which genetic influence causes behaviour

Question 16

Twin study example

Answer 16

Gottesman reviewed over 40 twin studies in a meta analysis, and found that concordance rate for schizophrenia was 48% for MZ twins and only 17% for DZ twins, which means that schizophrenia must be partly genetically inherited

However, 52% must be from the environment which the biological approach does not take into account

Question 17

What are the functions of different areas of the brain?

Answer 17

Frontal lobe- associated with reasoning, emotions and decision making
Parietal lobe- associated with perception of stimuli and attention
Occipital lobe- associated with visual processing
Temporal lobe- associated with memory and speech

Question 18

What are neurotransmitters

Answer 18

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers which travel across the synaptic gap during the process of synaptic transmission allowing neurons to communicate

Question 19

Describe the process of evolution in psychology

Answer 19

If an organism is able to adapt, it will have a greater chance of survival so will be able to reproduce. This may occur due to a mutation when genes are copied, and this offspring will pass this characteristic onto its own offspring. Over many generations, this characteristic will become more common, some of these characteristics may be a way of behaving.

One example is attachment, babies attach to their caregivers as they feed and protect them, which gives them a survival advantage

Question 21

Meditational processes?

Answer 21

Thought that takes place prior to imitation

Question 22

Attention?

Answer 22

A behaviour must capture our interest so we notice it

Question 23

Retention?

Answer 23

The behaviour must be memorable, for example something exceptionally different to what other people do, a behaviour is more likely to be imitated if it is seen repeatedly

Question 24

Reproduction?

Answer 24

Making a mental assessment about whether or not we are capable of imitating the behaviour. For example, a 90 year old woman watching dancing on ice will not attempt to replicate the ice dancing

Question 25

Motivation?

Answer 25

The observer will consider the rewards and punishments received by the role model, and will decide which one outweighs the other before imitating a behaviour

Question 26

Aims of Bandura’s reasearch

Answer 26

To investigate whether children will imitate role models who are no longer present and whether or not the likelihood of imitation increases if the child and the role model are the same gender

Question 27

What was the procedure of Bandura’s research?

Answer 27

Children aged 3-6 (mean age 4) were divided initially on whether they would watch an aggressive or non aggressive role-model. They were then divided further based on gender and whether or not they would watch a same-gender role models. The child watched the role model interaction with the doll for ten minutes. There was a time delay before the children entered the room with both aggressive toys e.g guns and non- aggressive toys e.g farm sets. The children were watched for twenty minutes are were given an aggression score from 1-10, and the ratings were checked for inter-observer reliability

Question 28

What were the findings of Bandura’s research?

Answer 28

Children who observed an adult who displayed aggressive behaviour were more likely to play aggressively than children who didn’t Children who watched a role model of the same gender were more likely to copy the role model’s behaviour than those who didn’t Boys were more likely to behave aggressively than girls

Question 29

What was the conclusion of Bandura’s research?

Answer 29

Imitation can be seen even with a delay after learning, this contradicts the behaviourist approach

Question 30

Strength of social learning theory- research support

Answer 30

Use Bandura’s research explained above

Question 31

Strength of social learning theory- more holistic than behaviourist theory

Answer 31

SLT is more holistic than the behaviourist approach as it acknowledges the role of cognitive/ meditational processes as well as input from the environment. This means that it offers a more complete explanation of human behaviour and is less likely to be accused of being oversimplified

Question 32

Strength of the behaviourist approach- practical applications o,ok,.klpl

Answer 32

The research is objective and therefore is free from researcher bias, this means that the internal validity is higher. The research uses laboratory procedures, therefore it is high in replicability and can be checked for reliability

Question 33

Strength of the behaviourist approach- practical applications o,

Answer 33

Classical conditioning- systematic desensitisation- the idea of associations being built between an irrational fear and phobic stimulus is replaced by an association between the phobic stimulus and relaxation. This treatment has helped many people recover from phobias, and the general success of it shows the theory it was based on is high in validity Operant conditioning- token economy- desriable behaviours are exchanged for a reward. Often used in prisons and desirable behaviours include avoiding conflict, following prison rules and keeping cell tidy. The theory has been used for reform in the way that prisons operate

Question 34

Limitation of behaviourist approach - extrapolation of animal research

Answer 34

Humans display complex behaviours which animals do not, such as abstract cognitions and language acquisition. Although behaviourist psychologists would claim that the research is valid as humans and animals both learn through conditioning, it can still be accused of being oversimplified

Question 35

Limitation of behaviourist approach- reductionist

Answer 35

Simplifies complex behaviours to a stimulus- response. A more holistic approach, which looks at the entire behaviour instead of bits that make it up may be better at explaining the complexity of the human experience

Question 36

Strength of social learning theory- practical applications

Answer 36

Can be used for age ratings in films, to ensure children are not exposed to content where role models are displaying too much violence. This means that less children will behave in violent ways, which may mean that in the future there are less violent crimes committed

Question 37

Limitations of social learning theory- underestimates biological factors

Answer 37

One finding of Bandura’s research was that boys were more violent than girls, however this may be influenced by hormonal differences such as higher levels of testosterone (a hormone which causes violence). This is a limitation because biological factors are not accounted for in social learning theory which brings question to the validity of it

Question 38

Limitation of social learning theory- validity of studies

Answer 38

Much of the research that social learning theory was based upon was carried out in with young children in laboratory settings, which often lowers both the internal and external validity. For example, in Bandura’s research, the main purpose of a Bobo doll is to punch it, therefore the children may have been behaving in a way they thought was expected instead of imitating the role models behaviour

Question 39

Strength of biological approach- supporting research from twin studies

Answer 39

McMuffin found that depression had a concordance rate of 46% in MZ twins and 20% in DZ twins (more than twice as likely) This showed that depression is at least partly genetic. This is a strength of the assumption that traits are inherited from our parents

Question 40

Limitation of using twin studies- separating nature and nurture

Answer 40

It is very difficult to separate nature and nurture as most pairs of twins would have been brought up in very similar environments (same house, same school etc) Additionally, identical twins would have been treated more similarly due to looking the same, therefore the research may have been measuring to what extent twins having the same lives affects concordance rates rather than biological differences

Question 41

Strength of the biological approach- practical applications

Answer 41

The knowledge that a certain mental disorder is caused by an imbalance of certain neurotransmitters can lead to the development of psychoactive drugs. For example, the knowledge that depression is caused by low serotonin transmission has been used to create SSRIs which increase serotonin transmission. This is a strength as it has been used to improve the lives of many people with a variety of different mental disorders

Question 42

Limitation of biological approach- reductionism

Answer 42

The biological approach looks at genetic transmission, however, inheriting a certain trait only makes a child vulnerable to inheriting a mental disorder. The biological approach does not take into account that there needs to be certain environmental influences for the characteristic to be expressed. A more holistic approach which considers interaction between biology and our environment may be better for understanding the complexity of the human experience

Question 43

What are the assumptions of the cognitive theory?

Answer 43

Behaviour is the result of internal mental processes, such as memory and perception Internal mental processes cannot be observed directly, so they are observed indirectly through behaviour which can be observed Internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically An information processing approach is used to explain human behaviour and thinking

Question 44

What is an inference?

Answer 44

The conclusion drawn from evaluating reasonable evidence and reasoning. Clues taken from observable behaviour are used when conclusions are drawn about the unobservable mind

Question 45

What are theoretical models?

Answer 45

Theoretical models are used to explain internal mental processes, for example the MSM. They are usually illustrated by a diagram. They are based off research which shows the internal mental process taking place, and more research is carried out to either support the initial research or to indicate if revisions need to be made. Finally, the theory is tested empirically before it is submitted and used to create treatments.

Question 46

Example of a theoretical model?

Answer 46

The MSM depicts the key storages as boxes (sensory memory, STM and LTM) and the key processes, attention, rehearsal and forgetting, as arrows

Question 47

Explain computer models

Answer 47

Scientists have developed computer models to stimulate human internal mental processing. For example, an algorithm is created with an input, for example our dating preferences, processing, finding people who match our preferences and we are compatible with, and an output for example creating a match

Question 48

Explain the role of schemas

Answer 48

Schemas are templates of knowledge we have about everything we have previously experienced before They are useful as they allow us to take shortcuts, which makes decision making easier as they allow us to behave appropriately in the situation However, they can be negative as they may lead to unconscious bias, distortion and stereotyping

Question 49

Describe cognitive neuroscience

Answer 49

Study of the biological basis for mental processing and was outlined by Miller and Gaziniga (1971) It has grown considerably in recent years due to the advancement of brain imaging technology such as PET scans or fMRI scans. For example, Tulving found that episodic memories are stored in the frontal cortex, whereas semantic memories are stored in the posterior region of the cortex. Often uses neurotypical people who are given tests to do while brain imaging takes place

Question 50

Evaluation of the cognitive approach- supports psychology as a scientific discipline

Answer 50

Only uses standardised, controlled procedures, for example when Peterson and Peterson were measuring duration of STM, the nonsense trigrams and setting was standardised.

Question 51

Evaluation of the cognitive approach- practical applications

Answer 51

The cognitive approach has been used to develop treatments which change faulty, irrational and harmful thoughts into rational and helpful thoughts. For example CBT, which has later diversified into REBT and over 100 other types of CBT. CBT has been used to treat a wide variety of mental illnesses such as depression, OCD and eating disorders. The general success of this treatment suggests the theory it was based upon has high validity

Question 52

Limitation of the cognitive approach- issues with methodology in supporting research

Answer 52

Due to its scientific nature, the research which supports laboratory experiments are laboratory experiments. This means that both the internal validity (due to demand characteristics) and external - ecological validity, due to the use of artificial tasks which makes it difficult to generalise to the rest of the world, are low. For example, during fMRI scans, participants are asked to lay on their back in a noisy and claustrophobic environment with loud vibrations and complete a task. They are also often asked to visualise thoughts which can be extremely difficult to do

Question 53

Limitation of the cognitive approach- machine reductionism

Answer 53

The cognitive approach has been accused of having an over-simplistic, mechanistic view of behaviour. Computers are not able to feel stressed over overwhelmed, and programmers are yet to be able to program feelings. This means that although computer models may be useful for testing existing data, they may be unable to create future predictions. This brings into question the usefulness of computer models.

Question 54

What are the key assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 54

The unconscious is the key determinant of how we behave We possess innate drives which influence our behaviour Our psych, which controls our personality, is comprised of the id, ego and superego Our childhood experiences shape our behaviour and personality as adults

Question 55

What did Freud suggest about the role of the unconscious?

Answer 55

Freud stated that the unconscious mind is inaccessible to our conscious awareness, however it acts as a driving force for all of our behaviour. The unconscious is comprised of our biological drives and disturbing memories which we have pushed away. For example, a child who has been abused or neglected will push these thoughts away, however it will resurface in adulthood in the form of depression and anxiety. The unconscious protects the conscious from anxiety, fear, trauma and conflict. A smoker may use defence mechanisms such as denial, to reduce the anxiety associated with admitting that smoking is bad for your health.

Question 56

Describe the structure of the personality

Answer 56

It is tripartite, and consists of the id, ego and superego

Question 57

Describe the id

Answer 57

Present from birth Acts according to the pleasure principle Is emotional and irrational Demands instant gratification, and is selfish In the unconscious part of the mind

Question 58

Describe the ego

Answer 58

Formed at around two years old Acts upon the reality principle Works to satisfy the desires of the id in realistic and socially acceptable ways. Uses defence mechanisms to reduce conflict between the impulsive demands of the id and the moralistic demands of our superego Mostly in the conscious part of the mind

Question 59

Describe the superego

Answer 59

Present from around five years old Acts upon the morality principle Makes decisions based upon our sense of right and wrong, and is determined by parental standards about what is and isn’t acceptable Causes guilt when rules are broken Mostly in the unconscious part of our mind

Question 60

Describe the role of defence mechanisms

Answer 60

Used by the ego in order to create a balance between the id and the superego. Are used unconsciously so that in the short term, anxiety is reduced and a person is more able to deal with a threat or trauma. However, they can cause distortion of reality which can have severe effects in the long term, so are regarded as psychologically unhealthy

Question 61

Describe repression

Answer 61

Process: Burying an unpleasant thought away in the unconscious Effects: A person may not understand why they are behaving the way that they are Example: A person with complex childhood trauma may believe they are dealing with it effectively, however they may have trouble forming relationships

Question 62

Describe displacement

Answer 62

Process: Redirecting unpleasant thoughts or feelings about one thing towards something else Effects: Gives hostile feelings a route for expression, even though they are misapplied to an innocent person or object Example: A person may argue with their partner when they are angry at their boss at work

Question 63

Describe denial

Answer 63

Process: An unpleasant or threatening thought is ignored, or treated as if it isn’t true Effect: In the short term, this allows the individual to deal with painful feelings which may be associated with a situation, meaning that anxiety is reduced and Example: A wife may see evidence of her husband cheating, but may explain it away with other explanations

Question 64

Describe the psychosexual stages (general)

Answer 64

Each child goes through five different psychosexual stages which are: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. These are all associated with erogonous zones, areas which are sensitive to touch. If any of these areas are given too much or too little attention during the stages, or if they are unable to resolve specific unconscious conflicts, a child can be fixated (stuck) at a stage. This affects their behaviour in adulthood.

Question 65

Describe the oral stage

Answer 65

Primary focus of the libido + age: 0-1 years old. Focus is on breastfeeding, feeding, eating sucking etc, focus is mothers breast. Example of cause of fixation: Neglecting a child’s feeding needs for example by moving on from breastfeeding too quickly Example of fixation on later personality: Emotional traits: suspicious, pessimistic envious, dominating, aggressive Physical traits: pen biting, smoking, nail biting

Question 66

Describe the anal stage

Answer 66

Primary focus of the libido+ age: 1-3. Focus is on withholding and expelling faces, satisfaction is derived from the anal region. Example of cause of fixation: Moving on from nappies too quickly, forcing the child to focus too much on withholding faces Example of fixation on later personality: Anal retentive : mean, bossy, tidy, may result in obsessive- compulsive disorder Anal expultive: impulsive, overly emotional, disorganised, chaotic

Question 67

Describe the phallic stage

Answer 67

Age: 3-6 years Primary focus of the libido: Satisfaction is derived from the genitals. Children discover the psysical differences between males and females as they form their own sexual identity Example of fixation: Boys develop the Oedipus complex, which means they have desire for their mother and view their father as a rival which results in hatred and fear of their father. Girls develop the electra complex which is the opposite. To resolve this conflict, boys need to repress their desire for their mother and identify with their father, taking on his gender roles and moral values. Example effect of fixation on later personality: Homosexuality, issues with authority figures, rejection of appropriate gender roles, self- assured, vain, impulsive

Question 68

Describe the latency stage?

Answer 68

Primary focuses of the libido: Sexual urges are suppressed and so are reduced Age: 6-12 years Example of fixation on later personality: Lack of emotional involvement with the opposite sex, no active engagement

Question 69

Describe the genital stage?

Answer 69

Age: 12 years onwards Primary focus of the libido: Pleasure is derived through the genitals Example effect of fixation on later personality: Mature, well- adjusted, able to love and be loved