Approaches

Question 1

Psychodynamic Approach

Answer 1

• Is the perspective that describes how the unconscious mind operates the mind and directs behaviour.
• The Unconscious is the part we are unaware of but directs much of our behaviour.
• The Id operates on the pleasure principle. It has sexual and aggressive instincts. It is present at birth.
• The Ego operates on the reality principle. It mediates the desires of the Id and Superego. It does this by employing Defence Mechanisms which develops at 2 years old.
• The SuperEgo operates on the morality principle which represents our ideal self. It is formed at the end of the phallic stage.
• The Psychosexual Stages are five development stages that all children pass through. Each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development.
  > Oral (0-1) focus on pleasure in the mouth. Mother’s breast is the object of desire. The consequence of unresolved conflict: sarcastic, oral fixation - biting nails, smoking.
  > Anal (1-3) focus of the anal. Pleasure, withholding and expelling faeces.
  > Phallic (3-5) focus on pleasure is the genital area.
  > Latency is where earlier conflicts are repressed
  > Genital is when sexual desires become conscious along with the onset of puberty. The consequence of unresolved conflict: difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
• Defence Mechanisms are unconscious strategies to manage the conflict between the Id and Superego.
  > Repression: forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
  > Denial: refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality.
  > Displacement: transferring feelings from the true source of distress onto a substitute target.
• Oedipus Complex is Freud’s explanation of how a boy resolves his love for his mother and feelings for rivalry towards his father by identifying with his father.
• Electra Complex: A girl’s sense of competition with her mother for the affections of her father. She will identify with her mother.

Evaluation

1. Little Hans (1909) was a 5-year-old who had a phobia of horses. Freud concluded that he displaced the feat that he felt for his father onto horses, although his fear formed when seeing one collapse in the street.
   This shows that Freud showed researcher bias. Freud favoured this case study because it supported what he already believed, therefore, lacks objectivity.
2. Deterministic. Freud believed that certain behaviours will definitely occur if certain conflicts are not overcome. No idea for free will. For example, if a child does not pass the oral stage then they will be sarcastic and have an oral fixation.
   This is a weakness because it assumes we have no control over our own behaviour due to childhood conflicts.
3. Practical application. Freud brought a new form of therapy called psychoanalysis. This consists of employing a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious mind, such as hypnosis and dream analysis. Psychoanalysis is the initiator to many modern-day psychotherapies that have been established. It has claimed success with patients who suffer from mild neurosis.
4. Lacks scientific validity. The psychodynamic theory is able to provide believable explanations for the causes of abnormality (e.g. childhood trauma) but it lacks empirical research evidence needed to support the theory. Freud based his ideas mainly on his own subjective analysis of middle class women.
5. Biased sample. Freud mainly studied middle-class women aged 20-44 who all had serious emotional problems. This therefore lacks generalisability to the wider population
6. Alpha bias in Freud’s theory.
   Freud proposed that women develop a weaker superego than men because they do not identify as strongly with their same-sex parent as boys do. This is because the resolution of the Electra complex is less satisfactory and partly because Freud believed there was little reason for anyone to identify with a woman because of her lower status. Freud exaggerated the differences between the genders and devalued women.
7. Compare with another approach.

Question 2

Biological Approach

Answer 2

• Is the perspective that all behaviours can be explained through genetic inheritance or an imbalance of chemicals in the brain.
• Genetic Basis
  Behaviour geneticists study how behavioural characteristics such as intelligence or mental disorders are inherited in the same way as physical traits
  > Twin studies are used to determine the likelihood of certain traits being genetically based. Biologists compare twins’ concordance rates (the extent of which twins share characteristics)
  > Monozygotic: identical twins formed from one fertilised egg
  > Dizygotic: non-identical twins formed from two fertilised eggs.
• Genotype: particular sets of traits/genes someone possesses.
• Phenotype: characteristics of an individual that is determined by genes and the environment
• Evolution is the change in inherited characteristics in a biological population over generations.
  > Darwin proposed ‘Natural selection’ which suggests that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival will continue in future generations.

Evaluation

1. Kendler et al (1985) found that the first-degree relatives of those with Schizophrenia were 18 times more at risk of developing the disorder. This shows that there could be a genetic basis for mental disorders.
2. Billett et al (1998) found that Monozygotic twins are more than twice as likely to develop OCD if their co-twin has the disorder. This was not the case for DZ twins. This shows that OCD could have a genetic basis and is even more likely if people share nearly 100% of the same characteristics.
3. Deterministic. Biologists see behaviour governed by internal, biological causes which we have no control over. No free will. A certain characteristic will occur if they have a genetic/inherited basis.
4. Scientific. Studies conducted on twins are conducted under controlled conditions. Meaning results produced have high external reliability and can, therefore, be replicated. Objectivity.
5. Nature v Nurture. Biologists say people are born a certain way which determines their behaviour. However, this contrasts with the Psychodynamic approach in which Freud believed that childhood conflicts have an influence on adulthood behaviour (nurture)

Question 3

Behaviourist Approach

Answer 3

• Is a way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and measurable.
  Early behaviourists such as Watson rejected introspection as it involved too many concepts that were too vague.
• Classical Conditioning is when an individual learns by association
  This occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together, the unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus. The NS eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the UCS.
• Operant conditioning is shaping and maintaining behaviour by consequences.
  Reinforcement: a consequence of behaviour that increases the frequency of behaviour
  Positive Reinforcement: being praised or rewarded for behaviour so it continues
  Negative Reinforcement: escaping an unpleasant situation so behaviour continues.
  Punishment: an unpleasant consequence of behaviour that decreases the frequency of a behaviour.

Evaluation

1. Pavlov’s dogs (1902) showed the existence of a UCR by presenting a dog with a bowl of dog food and then measuring its salivary secretions. Pavlov found that any object (NS) the dogs learned to associate food with would trigger the same salivary response. This provides evidence of how learning can be due to an association of two stimuli.
   > Extrapolation issues. Humans and dogs have different biological structures, therefore, it would be illogical to generalise these findings to humans
2. Skinner’s box (1938) Every time the rat activated the lever, the rat would be rewarded with a food pellet. The frequency of which the rat activated the lever increased. (positive reinforcement) Skinner also used electric shocks to show that behaviour can be reduced (punishment)
   > Lab study lacks mundane realism because of the artificial task and environment and controlled setting. Lacks ecological validity.
3. Deterministic. This approach sees all behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned. Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. It ignores the influence free will may have on our behaviour.
4. Has scientific credibility. Focuses on behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. Emphasises the importance of scientific processes such as objectivity and replication.
5. Unethical.

Question 4

Cognitive Approach

Answer 4

• Focuses on the internal mental processes and how it affects behaviour. Cognition refers to the process by which sensory input is transformed, stored, recovered and used.
• Internal Mental Processes are private operations of the mind that mediate between stimulus and response
  ‘private’ meaning it cannot be observed therefore psychologists makes inferences.
• Inference: Psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour.
• Theoretical Models suggest that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages. Input, storage and retrieval aka the MSM
• Computer Models is when the mind is compared to a computer suggesting that information is processed in a similar way.
  These models use the concept of a central processing unit, coding and the use of stores to hold information. This has helped in the development of artificial intelligence.
• Schemas are a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed through experience
• Emergence of Cognitive Neuroscience is the scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes.
  > In the 1860s, Paul Broca identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe could permanently damage speech production.
  > With brain imaging techniques such as PET and fMRI, scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes.

Evaluation

1. Tulving et al (1994) were able to show that using different types of LTM whilst being PET scanned shows that the location is in different areas of the brain. Semantic and Episodic memory were located on the opposite sides of the pre-frontal cortex. This shows that retrieving different types of information requires different locations of the brain
2. Palmer (1975) showed participants images followed by a briefly presented object. Participants were more likely to identify the object when it was in an appropriate scene. E.g a loaf of bread in a kitchen. Rather than when the scene did not reflect the object. Thus shows schemas help brain process easier when an object is associated with a situation.
3. Deterministic. The approach recognises that we can only think within limits of what we know, but we are free to think before responding to stimuli. Therefore, this is more of an interactional position. Includes the concept of free will - advantage.
4. Scientifically valid. Studies carried out into cognition is objective. For example, studies carried out into the MSM. This means conclusions drawn from this can be applicable to the world at large.
   > Controlled lab settings - ecological validity.
5. Humanistic approach. Both approaches believe that individuals have the free will to control their thought process, therefore controlling their behaviour.
6. Gender bias. It generalises assumptions and findings to both genders. Hormonal differences are not taken into consideration.
   This is a contrast to the psychodynamic approach which is alpha bias.

Question 5

Social Learning Theory

Answer 5

• A way of explaining behaviour that includes indirect reinforcement combined with cognitive factors.
• Vicarious Reinforcement: observing someone else being reinforced for behaviour
• Identification: an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like them
• Modelling: imitating behaviour of the role model. They do not need top be present as Bandura et al 1961 shows.
• Mediational Processes: cognitive factors that influence learning and comes in between stimulus and response
  > Attention. Is it noticed
  > Retention. It is remembered
  > Motor reproduction. the ability to perform the behaviour
  > Motivation. the will to perform the behaviour. Determined by whether the behaviour is rewarded or punished.

Evaluation

1. Bandura et al (1961) investigated whether the model and gender would have a measurable difference in behaviour. 72 kids watched their role model either behave in an aggressive or non-aggressive manner towards a bobo doll. (or no model at all). They were taken into another room for 20 minutes with aggressive and non-aggressive toys. in which they were not allowed to touch. Then they were taken into another room that had to same bobo doll in it and their behaviour was observed. They found that those who observed aggressive behaviour were more aggressive overall. Boys were more aggressive and greater levels of imitation if they observed their own gender. This supports the concepts of role models, identification and vicarious reinforcement.
2. Fagot (1978) observed children of two years whilst playing at home with their parents. She recroded the reinforcements and punishments. Boys were reinforced for playing with gender appropriate toys and punished for playing with dolls. Girls were reinforced for staying close to the parent and punished for playing roughly. Children observe and imitate behaviour whether it is gender appropriate or not.
3. Deterministic. Bandura emphasised that we are not influenced by our external environment but we exert an influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform
4. Beta bias. The SLT theory assumes behaviour is not determined by gender
5. Unethical. Most studies conducted into SLT are done on kids and kids typically don’t give informed consent.

Question 6

Humanistic Approach

Answer 6

• Emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self-determination
• Free Will is the notion that that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces.
• Self-Actualisation is an innate desire to grow psychologically and fulfil’s one’s full potential
• Hierarchy of needs: proposed by Maslow (1947)
  is a 5 levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic needs must be satisfied before high psychological needs can be achieved
  > Physiological needs: water and food
  > Safety and Security
  > Love and Belongingness: support and relationships
  > Self-esteem: achievement
  > Self-actualisation
• Congruence is the self-concept and the ideal-self being in complete harmony with each other
  > Self-concept: who you are now
  > Ideal-self: the person you want to be
• In order to reduce the gap between the two selves, Rogers developed Client Centred Therapy to help people cope with problems of everyday living.
  > The issues we experience as adults like low self-esteem can be explained by lack of unconditional positive regard (providing affection and respect without any conditions attached)
• Conditions of worth: when parents place limits or boundaries on their love for their children. For example, “I will only love you if you get good grades”
• Rogers thought that giving patients UPR is one of his duties as an effective therapist.

Evaluation

1. Humanism rejects scientific methodology
   Humanists use qualitative research methods such as diary accounts, open-ended questions and unstructured observations. This is useful at the individual level and to find out in depth the ways people think but in terms of having scientific credibility, that is questionable.
2. Humanism ignores the unconscious mind, the input of biology and genetics which has not been included within the humanism theory, and some extreme cases like that of Clive Wearing have shown that the unconscious mind has a place within cognitive processing. Because humanists ignore the unconscious mind, heavy criticism has come from psychoanalysts’ especially as they observe the theory that the unconscious mind is the most important part of psychology.
3. Real life application
   Humanism has satisfied most people’s idea of what being human is all about because it keeps self-attainment and values close to the centre of the theory, which seems to carry more meaning than the quantitative data and laws that surround behaviourism and cognitive psychology as well their deterministic approach, make them seem official.
4. Maslow’s person-centered humanistic theory has been applied to fewer areas of psychology in comparison to other theories (Psychodynamic, psychoanalysis). Because of this, its contributions are limited to areas like therapy, abnormality, motivation, and personality. The possible reason for the lack of influence on academic psychology can be attributed to the fact that humanistic approaches purposely adopted a non-scientific approach to the study of human behaviour and personality. An example of this would be the belief in free-will, which is in direct contrast to the deterministic laws of science
5. Culture bias
   Many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology, such as an individual’s freedom and personal growth would be associated with individualist cultures in the Western World such as the US. Collectivist cultures such as India, which emphasise the needs of the group and community may not identify so easily with the values and ideals od the humanistic psychology. Therefore, it is possible that this approach would not travel well and is a product of cultural context within which it was developed.

6.