Research Methods

Question 1

Experimental Method

Answer 1

• Involves the manipulation of an independent variable to measure the effect on the dependent variable. Experiments may be lab, field, quasi, natural
• An aim is a general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study
  > “To investigate whether drinking energy drinks makes people more talkative”
• Hypothesis: a clear precise, testable statement that states the relationship between variables to be investigated. It is stated at the outset of any study.
  > Directional Hypothesis: states the direction of the difference or relationship
  > Non-directional Hypothesis: does not state the direction
• Variables: any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing result in changes to another.
• Independent variable: an aspect of the investigation that is manipulated by the researcher or it changes naturally so the effect on the DV can be measured
• Dependent variable: the variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the IV
• Operationalisation: clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.

Question 2

Control of Variables

Answer 2

• Extraneous Variables: any variable, other than the IV, that may have an effect on the dependent variable if it is not controlled. EV do not vary consistently with the IV.
• Confounding Variables: any variable, other than the IV, that have affected the DV so we cannot be sure of the true source of the changes to the DV. CV vary consistently with the IV
• Demand characteristics: any cue from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation. This may lead participants to change their behaviour within the research situation
• Investigator effects: any effect of the investigator’s behaviour that will affect the research outcome. This may include the design of the study, the selection of participants, the interaction with the participants
• Randomisation: the use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.
• Standardisation: using the exact same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study

Question 3

Experimental Design

Answer 3

• the different ways in which the testing of participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions.
• Counterbalancing: an attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design. Half of the participants experience the conditions in one order and the other half in the opposite order.
• Random allocation: an attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other.

1. Independent groups design: participants are allocated to only one of the many experimental conditions.
   Weakness: Individual differences could be the main reason for each conditions having different results.
   Strength: Order effects are avoided. Also, participants are less likely to guess the aims.
   Weakness: less economical than repeated measures as more participants are needed to produce equivalent data
2. Repeated measures: all participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.
   Weakness: Order effects are more likely to occur because participants are repeating the task. This could create boredom or fatigue that might cause deterioration in performance on the second task.
   Strength: Participant variables are controlled and fewer participants are needed making this design more economical.
3. Matched pairs design: pairs of participants are matched on a certain variable (IQ or age) that may affect the DV. Then one member is assigned to condition A and the second member is assigned to condition B.
   Weakness: participants may never be matched perfectly because there will always be important individual differences between them that may affect the DV.
   Strength: order effects are avoided and demand characteristics are less of a problem

Question 4

Experimental Methods

Answer 4

1. Lab study: an experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst manipulating strict control of extraneous variables.
   Weakness: May lack generalisability. The lab setting may be artificial and not like everyday life. In an unfamiliar context, participants may behave in usual ways so their behaviour cannot always be generalised. Lack ecological validity
   Strength: Has high control over extraneous variables. This means researchers can ensure that any effect on the DV is likely to be the result of manipulation of the IV. Thus, we can be more certain about demonstrating the cause and effect. (high face validity)
   Weakness: Tasks that participants are asked to carry out in a lab experiment may not represent real life experiences. Low mundane realism
   Strength: Replication is possible because of the high level of control. This ensures that new EVs are not introduced when repeating an experiment. Replication is vital to check the results of any study to see whether the finding is valid and just not a one-off.
2. Field study: experiments that take place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.
   Weakness: Loss of control. This means cause and effect between the IV and the DV in field studies may be much more difficult to establish and precise replication is often not possible.
   Strength: Have higher levels of mundane realism than lab studies because the environment is more natural. Thus, field experiments may produce behaviour that is more valid and authentic. High ecological validity
   Weakness: Ethical issues. Sometimes participants are unaware they are being studied they cannot consent to be studied and such research might constitute an invasion of privacy.
3. Natural study: experiments where the change in the IV is naturally occurring. The IV would have occurred whether it was brought by the researcher or not. The researcher records the effect it has on the DV.
   Weakness: a naturally occurring event may only happen very rarely, reducing the opportunities for research. This then reduces the generalisability of the findings
   Strength: High ecological validity because they involve the study of real life issues and problems as they happen.
   Weakness: cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions and therefore may be confounding variables
4. Quasi-study: experiments where the study is based on an already existing IV. No one has manipulated this variable.
   Weakness: cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions and therefore may be confounding variables
   Strength: Replication is possible because of the high level of control. This ensures that new EVs are not introduced when repeating an experiment. Replication is vital to check the results of any study to see whether the finding is valid and just not a one-off.

Question 5

Sampling

Answer 5

• Population: a group of people who are the focus of the researcher’s interest.
• Sample: A group of people who take part in research investigation. The sample is drawn from a target population and is presumed to be representative of that population.

1. Random sampling is when all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.
   > Random name generator
   Weakness: Difficult and time-consuming to conduct. A complete list of the target population may be extremely difficult to obtain.
   Strength: Free from researcher bias. The researcher has no influence over who is selected and this prevents them from choosing people who they think may support their hypothesis.
   Weakness: Selected participants maty refuse to take part which means you end up with something more like volunteer sampling.
2. Systematic sampling is when every nth member of the target population is selected. A sampling frame is produced which is a list of people in the target population organised into alphabetical order. A sampling system is nominated or may determined randomly.
   Weakness: There is a greater risk of data manipulation with systematic sampling because researchers might be able to construct their systems to increase the likelihood of achieving a targeted outcome rather than letting the random data produce a representative answer.
   Strength: avoids researcher. Once the system selection has been established the researcher has no control over who is chosen.
3. Stratified sampling is when the researcher divides the population into separate groups, called strata. Then, a random sample is drawn from each group.
   Weakness: The identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different so complete representation of the target population is not possible
   Strength: Free from researcher bias. The researcher has no influence over who is selected and this prevents them from choosing people who they think may support their hypothesis.
4. Opportunity sampling is when researchers select anyone who is willing and available.
   Weakness: Unrepresentative of the target population as it drawn from a very specific area so findings cannot be generalised to a target population.
   Strength: it is very convenient. this method saves the researcher effort and time.
   Weakness: the researcher has complete control over the selection of participants and they may avoid people they do not like the look of (researcher bias)
5. Volunteer sampling involves participants self-selecting themselves to be part of the sample.
   Weakness: volunteer bias. asking for volunteers may attract a certain profile of a person.
   Strength: it is very convenient. this method saves the researcher effort and time

Question 6

Ethical Issues

Answer 6

• Ethical issues arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data.
• British Psychological Society produced a legal document that instructs psychologists on the guidelines of behaviour. It was built around respect, competence, responsibility and integrity

1. Informed Consent is making the participants aware of the true aim of the study, the procedure, their rights, their right to withdraw and what the data will be used for. They should be given a choice on whether or not to take part without feeling obligated to.
   > participants should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate. Those under 16 will be in need of parental consent
2. Deception is purposely misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the study. On certain occasions, deceptions could be justified only if doesn’t cause any type of distress.
   > After the study the participants must be debriefed. Researchers must tell participants the true aim of the study and any details that were not supplied at the start of the investigation.
3. Protection from harm. Participants should be protected from psychological, physical and emotional harm. Psychological harm includes feelings such as embarrassment, inadequacy or pressure/stress.
   > Participants should be reminded of their right to withdraw.
4. Right to withdraw. Participants should be aware that they can be withdrawn at any stage during the investigation.
5. Confidentiality. Participants have the right to control information about themselves. Personal data, locations of where the study took place may be protected
6. Debrief. After the investigation has taken place, the researcher must debrief the participants about the investigation and inform them of any deception that may have occurred.

Question 7

Pilot Studies

Answer 7

• Is a trial run of the actual investigation that consists of a smaller sample of participants. This is to test the procedure.
• Using a self-report method, trying out questions is helpful because it can help researchers take out confusing or ambiguous questions.
• In observational studies, it provides a way of checking coding systems and ensures potential issues are modified
• Single-blind procedure is when participants are not told the true aim of the investigation. Other details could be kept from the participants. This procedure is an attempt to control for the confounding effects
• Double-blind procedures si when the researcher and participants are not aware of the true aims of the study. A third party conducts a study without knowing its main purpose. This is an important feature of drug trials. Someone gives the patients the drugs not knowing which ones are real or the placebos.
• Control is used for the purpose of comparison
• Experimental condition receives the real procedure
• If the experimental is greater than the control condition then the researcher can conclude that the IV was the cause of the DV.

Question 8

Observational Techniques

Answer 8

• Naturalistic Observation: watching and observing behaviour in the setting in which it would naturally occur. All aspects are free to vary.
  Weakness: Lack of control, therefore, it makes replication difficult
  Strength: High ecological validity because of the natural environment. Findings can often be generalised
• Controlled Observation: watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment. There is some control over variables. The researcher manipulates the IV to see the effects it has on the DV and researcher controls the EVs.
  Weakness: findings cannot be applied to real life. lack of ecological validity
  Strength: EVs may be less of a factor making replication possible.
• Covert Observation: participants are unaware they are being observed so their behaviour is being observed in secret. Such behaviour must be public and happening anyway for the observation is to be ethical.
  Weakness: Deception
  Strength: Removes participant reactivity - increases internal validity
  Weakness: no informed consent
• Overt Observation: participants know their behaviour is being observed and has given informed consent beforehand.
  Weakness: participants may alter their behaviour
  Strength: informed consent was obtained.
• Participant Observation: researcher becomes a member of the group that they are studying.
  Weakness: researcher may identify too strongly and lose objectivity aka ‘going native’
  Strength: gives researchers an insight into the lives of the participants. May increase the validity of the findings.
• Non-participant Observation: researcher remains separate from the study group and records behaviour i a more objective way.
  Weakness: may lose valuable insight as the researcher is too removed from the participants and their behaviour.
  Strength: allows psychological, objective distance less chance of going native.

Question 9

Observational Design

Answer 9

• Unstructured Observation: researcher writes down everything they see. This is appropriate for small amounts of participants and a small scale study.
  Weakness: Produced qualitative data which will be harder and longer to analyse
  Strength: produces data that is rich in detail
  Weakness: no behavioural categories which could cause researcher bias.
• Structured Observation: researcher uses a pre-determined list of behaviours and sampling method.
  Weakness: other essential behaviour could be overlooked or dismissed
  Strength: behavioural categories make data easier and systematic
  Strength: quantitative data is easier to analyse
  Strength: some control over researcher bias
• Behavioural categories is when a target behaviour is broken up into categories that are observable and measurable. For e.g. affection can be observed through kissing, smiling and hugging
• Continuous Recording: a feature of unstructured observation in which all behaviour is recorded.
• Event Sampling: researcher records behaviour at an event every time it occurs
  Weakness: if the event is complex or busy, important details could be missed
  Strength: less chance of behaviour being missed therefore researcher has accurate data
• Time Sampling: an individual or group is established then the researcher records behaviour within a fixed time frame. E.g. every 30 minutes.
  Weakness: may not represent the whole behaviour since time is limited
  Strength: reduced the amount of time researcher takes to observe behaviour

Question 10

Self-Report Techniques

Answer 10

• is any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings or opinions

1. Questionnaire. This is a set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts or experiences.
   > Open questions: respondents are free to answer in any way they went. These tend to produce qualitative data.
   >Closed questions: offer a fixed number of responses which typically produce numerical data.
   Weakness: social desirability bias
   Strength: they are cost-effective. they can gather a large amount of data quickly because they can be distributed to large numbers of people
   Weakness: open questions are harder to analyse
   Strength: questionnaires can be completed without the researcher being present which prevents demand characteristics
2. Interviews. A live encounter where the interviewer asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s thoughts and experiences.
   > Structured: pre-determined set of questions that are in a fixed order
   > Semi-structured: there is a list of questions set out but interviewers are also free to ask to follow up questions.
   > Unstructured: no set of questions. Works like a conversation. There is a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed.
   Weakness: researcher will have to sit through irrelevant data and drawing conclusions will take longer
   Strength: straightforward to replicate due to its standardised format
   Weakness: social desirability
   Strength: more flexibility in the process: more likely to gain insight into the worldview of the interviewee

Question 11

Reliability

Answer 11

• Refers to the consistency of a research study or a measuring test
• Internal: the extent to which a measure is consistent within itself
• External: the extent to which a measure varies from one use to another.
• Split-half method measures the extent to which all parts of the test contribute equally to what is being observed. This assesses the internal consistency of a test, such as questionnaires
  > The researcher compares the results of one-half of a test with the results from the second half. If the two halves of the test provide similar results this would suggest that the test is reliable, internally.
  > this test is only effective if it is a large-scale questionnaire in which all questions measure the same construct.
• Test-retest measures the stability of a test over time. This assesses the external consistency of a test.
  > Involves giving the same test to participants on two separate occasions. If the same or similar results occur then external reliability is established.
  > A disadvantage is that the method takes too long to e obtained.
• Inter-observer reliability measures the extent to which there is an agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour.
  > This is measured by correlating the observations of two or more observers.
  > The general rule is that if the total number of agreements divided by the total number of observations is less than 0.80 then the data has high inter-observer reliability.