approaches in psychology

Question 1

define introspection

Answer 1

an experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up consciousness into thoughts, images and sensations

Question 2

Who is Wilhelm Wundt and what did he do?

Answer 2

-“father of psychology”
-separated psychology from philosophy
-opened the first lab dedicated to psychology in 1878 in Leipzig, Germany.
= aimed to study the mind under controlled conditions (introspection) (structuralism)

Question 3

Describe Ivan Pavlov’s research

Answer 3

-(1927) investigated classical conditioning.
-showed how a neutral stimulus, e.g a bell can evoke a new conditioned response, e.g salivation in a dog via association.
-he made observations of this to see if association via classic conditioning could take place.

Question 4

describe B.F Skinners research and define positive/ negative reinforcement and punishment

Answer 4

-(1953) suggested learning was an active process and that in operant conditioning, behaviour is shaped by its consequences.
-positive reinforcement= receiving a reward after exerting a certain behaviour
-negative reinforcement=avoiding something unpleasant to receive a positive outcome.
-punishment=an unpleasant consequence of behaviour

Question 5

explain the difference between a nomothetic and idiographic method

Answer 5

-nomothetic method=study that performs experiments to gain data about personality that can be generalised to a larger population
-idiographic method=spends more time with an individual to learn about their unique personality

Question 6

what are token economy systems

Answer 6

rewarding desirable behaviour with a ‘token’ which can be traded for rewards/privileges. used in prisons, psychiatric wards etc

Question 7

strengths of the behaviourist approach

Answer 7

-scientific credibility (well controlled lab research)
-nomothetic method that can be generalised
-real life practical applications (psychological treatments)

Question 8

limitations of the behaviourist approach

Answer 8

-unethical practices (animal and children testing)
-environmentally determinist (ignores free will)
-portrays humans and animals in a mechanistic view

Question 9

what are the assumptions of the behaviourist approach

Answer 9

-believed both humans and animals adapted behaviour in the same way
-believed everyone is born ‘tabula rasa’ and that we learn solely through experience

Question 10

what are the assumptions of the social learning theory

Answer 10

-behaviour is learnt through indirect observation and imitation of others. (in addition to classical and operant conditioning)
-see people as ‘active manipulators’ of their own environment rather than receivers of experience.
-learning occurs through the observation of the ‘role model’.

Question 11

describe Albert Bandura’s (1961) research

Answer 11

-Bobo Doll Experiment - children (half girls, half boys) aged 3-6yrs split into 3 groups using match pair design.
1-observed adult hit+shout at Bobo doll
2-observed adult be peaceful with Bobo doll
3-control (no role model)
-Children’s toys were taken away + left w/ Bobo doll in room
Results: children in group 1 = more aggressive than others, boys imitated same-sex models more than girls + boys were naturally more aggressive. girls imitated more physical aggression if they observed male model, + more verbal aggression if they observed female model.

Question 12

what is the meditational process

Answer 12

how cognitive factors are involved in learning:
-attention
-retention
-reproduction
-motivation
(identified by Bandura)

Question 13

define modelling and identification

Answer 13

modelling- observing+imitating a certain behaviour from a role model
identification-identifying with a role model and modelling them, especially those with similar characteristics eg gender.

Question 14

strengths of the social learning theory

Answer 14

-acknowledges cognition
-lab based experiments, controlled+credible
-nomothetic method that can be generalised
-reciprocal determinism
-explains influence of media on aggressive behaviour
-real life applications (understanding criminal behaviour)

Question 15

limitations of the social learning theory

Answer 15

-doesn’t acknowledge biological factors like genes and hormones
-lab based (demand characteristics) so lacks ecological validity
-Bandura’s research was not fully standardised
-unethical (kids practicing aggression)

Question 16

define vicarious reinforcement

Answer 16

the process of indirectly observing someone perform a behaviour and it’s consequence and imitating it if it’s positive.

Question 17

assumptions of the cognitive approach

Answer 17

-looking at internal mental processes to understand behaviour
-mental processes are ‘private’ and can’t be observed. they are studied indirectly by making inferences about what’s going on in someone’s head
-machine reductionism
-opposes behaviourism

Question 18

define and explain machine reductionism

Answer 18

the comparison of the human mind to a ‘thinking machine’, eg a computer. this ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation has on our ability to process information.

Question 19

explain what a schema is, its strengths and limitations

Answer 19

• mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing
• developed w/ experience. babies are born with simple motor schema eg sucking,grasping.
  -as we get older our schemas get more detailed and numerous.
  strength- helps process information quick.
  limitation-creates stereotypes + gets difficult to retain new infothat doesn’t conform to our established ideas of the world

Question 20

describe the theoretical and computer model

Answer 20

they are visual representations of internal mental processes that are sequential, simplified and come in picture format with cause and effect. also typically flow charts
-useful in the development of AI

Question 21

describe the emerge of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 21

a new field of scientific study of how mental processes influence the brain structures, supported by the development of brain scanning techniques, which have proved useful in researching mental disorders, brain aging, treatment for memory issues and more.
-was able to distinguish the difference types of LTM

Question 22

strengths of the cognitive approach

Answer 22

-objective, scientific methods (controlled lab studies) increases credibility
-real life applications (AI, eyewitnesses, mental disorder treatment)

Question 23

limitations of the cognitive approach

Answer 23

-too abstract, relies on inferences so lacks external validity bc of artificial stimuli
-machine reductionism

Question 24

assumptions of the humanistic approach

Answer 24

-positive optimistic approach
-humans have free will, are active agents of their subjective experience but can still be affected by external/internal factors
-person centred approach (holistic)

Question 25

what is maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 25

-Abraham maslow created a hierarchy of needs that motivate our behaviour and need to be met before we achieve self actualisation -physiological needs, safety and security, love and belongingness, self esteem and self actualisation

Question 26

what is self actualisation

Answer 26

-the desire to grow psychologically and reach ones full potential, an essential part of being human. -some psychological barriers may prevent people reaching this

Question 27

explain the self, congruence and conditions of worth

Answer 27

-carl roger’s argued that for personal growth to be achieved, an individuals concept of self and their ideal self must be balanced. if not, a state of incongruence will be experienced and self actualisation won’t be reached. -roger’s claimed many issues adults experience like self esteem stem from not receiving unconditional positive regards from parents in childhood. -conditions of worth are limits to love and can create psychological issues later on

Question 28

explain counselling psychology

Answer 28

-client centred therapy has led to the general approach of counselling that’s applied in modern day psychotherapy. -referred to people as clients not patients -non-directive so clients were encouraged to find a solution to their issues -aim was to increase feelings of self worth and to reduce incongruence by providing unconditional positive regard and a supportive safe atmosphere. -only treats mild conditions like anxiety not things like schizophrenia

Question 29

strengths of the humanistic approach

Answer 29

-positive approach (optimistic) -not reductionist, believe in free will -real life applications like psychotherapy

Question 30

limitations of the humanistic approach

Answer 30

-cultural bias (individualist vs collectivist countries) -limited application (psychotherapy can't be used on more severe disorders like schizophrenia) -unfalsifiable aspects like self-actualisation that don't have empirical data and can't be numerically tested

Question 31

assumptions of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 31

-the unconscious mind plays a massive role in our conscious behaviour -childhood experiences can affect behaviour or psychological issues in adulthood -psychic determinism -our personality is split into 3 -we have defence mechanisms to protect the unconscious mind

Question 32

describe Sigmund Freud's idea of the structure of personality

Answer 32

freud described the personality as 'tripartite' consisting of the id ego and superego id- present at birth, operates on pleasure principle, focuses son unconscious drives to immediately satisfy selfish desires. ego-develops at around 2yrs, mediates id and superego, operates on reality principle, tries to reduce conflict with defence mechanisms superego-formed at around 5yrs, operates on morality principle, punishes ego for wrongdoing through guild and gives us an internalised sense of morality

Question 33

describe the psychosexual stages and the consequences of the unresolved conflict in each.

Answer 33

0-1yrs oral - focus of please is mouth, object of pleasure may be mother's breast. C= oral fixations like smoking, biting nails, being sarcastic or critical 1-3yrs anal - focus of pleasure is anus, pleasure gained from withholding/expelling faeces. C= either anal retentive (perfectionist, obsessive) or anal expulsive (thoughtless, messy) 3-6yrs phallic - focus of pleasure is genital area,. C= phallic personality (narcissistic, reckless) 6-puberty latency -earlier conflicts repressed, no conflict genital - sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty. C= difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

Question 34

explain the role of the unconscious

Answer 34

sigmund freud thought that the conscious mind was the tip of the iceberg of our mind and that most of it is made up of the unconscious, which contains threatening, repressed memories that slip through dreams or parapraxes. -just above the unconscious is the pre-conscious

Question 35

outline and explain the defence mechanisms

Answer 35

-deployed by the ego to reduce conflict -they are unconscious and prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats/traumas -involve some distortion of memory and regarded as psychologically unhealthy as a long-term solution repression=forcing a distant memory out of the conscious mind denial=refusing to acknowledge some aspects of reality displacement=transfers feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target

Question 36

strengths of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 36

-real world application like talking therapies (psychoanalysis) -explanatory power

Question 37

limitations of the psychodynamic approach

Answer 37

-lack of subjectivity -unfalsifiable concepts -psychic determinism -psychoanalysis won't work on sever mental issues like schizophrenia

Question 38

what is psychic determinism

Answer 38

states how most of our behaviour is determined by the unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood. Freud believed there was no such thing as an accident.

Question 39

what are the assumptions of the biological approach

Answer 39

-everything psychological is first biological -biological structures can help explain our thoughts and behaviour -we have to investigate biological structures eg genes, nervous system -the mind lives in the brain

Question 40

define genotype and phenotype

Answer 40

genotype=a persons genetic makeup phenotype=expression of the genotype through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics. can be influenced by environmental factors

Question 41

link evolution and behaviour

Answer 41

Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection (any genetically determined behaviour that is advantageous will be passed down to future generations)

Question 42

describe and explain neurochemistry

Answer 42

it is the action of chemicals in the brain -much of our thought and behaviour relies of chemical transmission in the brain which occurs using neurotransmitters -an imbalance of neurochemicals can possible be the cause of some mental disorders

Question 43

define biological determinism and why is it bad

Answer 43

states that human behaviour is governed by internal. genetic causes that we have no control over -too simplistic and ignores mediating factors of the environment

Question 44

what were the twin studies in the biological approach

Answer 44

-were used to see if certain traits have genetic basis -done by comparing concordance rates (%) between pairs of twins MZ/monozygotic twins=identical DZ/dizygotic twins=fraternal -compares similarities and differences -investigates the role of the genetics and the environment on human characteristics/traits (nature vs nurture)

Question 45

strengths of the biological approach

Answer 45

-uses scientific methods eg scanning techniques -real world application eg psychoactive drugs

Question 46

limitations of the biological approach

Answer 46

-biologically determinist -placebos in psychoactive drugs -natural selection theory cannot be falsified