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Approaches in Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is objectivity?

A

Based on facts and (quantitative) data
Not influenced by personal opinion or feelings

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2
Q

What is the empirical method?

A

Using observable methods, usually lab-based studies, to draw conclusions leading to theories

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3
Q

What are controlled conditions?

A

In an experiment, when all variables other than the IV are kept constant so as not affect the DV

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4
Q

What are standardised instructions?

A

When participants are given the same instructions to avoid investigator effects

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5
Q

What is replicability?

A

When a study can be repeated (e.g. to test for the reliability of findings).

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6
Q

What is introspection? How did Wundt conduct it?

A

The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
Wundt asked participants to notice and record their mental responses to a stimuli (such as a metronome) in controlled conditions, and asked them to write it down. He analysed the responses to discover the ‘structure of the mind’

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7
Q

What is structualism?

A

The attempt to understand the structure and characteristics of the mind

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8
Q

What did Wundt contribute to psychology?

A

First Psychology textbook and lab
More than just philosophy/theory about the mind
Standardised instructions and controlled conditions = replicable
His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes e.g. by cognitive psychologists.

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9
Q

What are some criticisms of Wundt and Behaviourism?

A

Introspection provides subjective data. This is so variable that it is impossible to establish general laws/principles.

Internal mental processes cannot be empirically studied. Psychology should focus on observable phenomenon only which can be objectively measured.

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10
Q

What does behaviourism (1900s) contribute to psychology?

A

Questioned value of introspection, proposed using objective studies of things that can be observed in research, so that general laws could be established

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11
Q

What does the cognitive approach (1950s) contribute to psychology?

A

Likened mind to computer, tested predictions about memory and attention using experiments, ensured study of mind was scientific and legitimate

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12
Q

What does the biological approach (1980s) contribute to psychology?

A

Investigate physiological processes using technological advances, for example brain scanning to see live activity, and also genetic testing to see the correlation between genes and behaviour.

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13
Q

What does cognitive neuroscience (21st C) contribute to psychology?

A

Brings together the cognitive and biological approaches, investigates how biological structures influence mental states

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14
Q

What are the three key assumptions of Behaviourism?

A

-Born a blank slate, learn behaviour through experience. Determined by environment (nurture rather than nature)
-Should only study behaviour that can be observed and measured, focus on lab experiments
-Basic processes that govern learning are same in all species, acceptable to use animals in lab experiments

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15
Q

What two key kinds of learning did behaviourists identify?

A

Classical and operant conditioning

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16
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an existing involuntary reflex response is associated with a new stimulus, learning to associate two stimuli after repeated

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17
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

New voluntary behaviour is associated with a consequence - reinforcement makes the behaviour more likely to occur, while punishment makes it less likely to occur

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18
Q

What is generalisation?

A

When a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus produces behaviour identical to the conditioned response

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19
Q

What is extinction?

A

The process of the conditioned response disappearing when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus

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20
Q

What is spontaneous recovery?

A

The reappearance of the conditioned response following extinction after a period of absence of the conditioned stimulus or any other triggers

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21
Q

What is the unconditioned stimulus?

A

A stimulus which produces a natural, unlearnt behavioural response

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22
Q

What is the unconditioned response?

A

A response which occurs naturally without learning

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23
Q

What is the neutral stimulus?

A

Any environmental stimulus which does not naturally produce a behavioural response

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24
Q

What is the conditioned stimulus?

A

A stimulus which has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus so that it now produces the same response

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25
What assumptions does social learning theory share with behaviourism?
Behaviour is shaped through learning or experience (nurture) Learning occurs directly through classical and operant conditioning
26
What assumptions are held by social learning theory?
People also learn indirectly through observation, identification, modelling, and vicarious reinforcement in a social context. Cognitive processes mediate between stimuli & responses; in other words, we think about the behaviour we learn before we perform it.
27
What is social learning theory?
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
28
What is imitation?
Copying the behaviour of others
29
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.
30
What is modelling (SLT)?
From the observers perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From role models perspective, modelling is precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
31
What is identification?
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.
32
What is a role model?
A person who serves as an example by influencing others
33
What is attention (SLT)
Extent to which we notice certain behaviours
34
What is retention (SLT)?
How well the behaviour is remembered, memorised
35
What is motor reproduction (SLT)?
Ability to perform the behaviour, practise it themselves
36
What is motivation (SLT)?
Will to perform behaviour, often determined by whether behaviour was rewarded or punished
37
What is reciprocal determinism?
A person's behaviour both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment
38
What are mirror neurons?
Neurons that fire whilst observing an action being performed (not just whilst performing an action)
39
What are the assumptions of the cognitive approach?
Cognitive (mental) processes mediate between stimulus and response and should be studied scientifically. Although cognitive processes such as. memory, perception, reasoning are internal processes and cannot be directly observed, they can be studied indirectly through making inferences based on observable behaviour in experiments. We can use findings from these experiments to create theoretical and computer models that help us to understand the mind.
40
What is schema?
Mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing Developed from experience, shape our experience of the world
41
What are theoretical and computer models used for, and give an example.
Models help to understand internal mental processes Multistore model suggest that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages: input, storage, retrieval
42
What are inferences? Give an example
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour Baddeley dual task study, evidence to infer that we have different, limited-capacity STM stores that process different types of working memory
43
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The scientific study of the biological basis of mental processes Study of the neurological structures and processes that underpin cognitive processes
44
What techniques does cognitive neuroscience use?
Brain scans/imaging (fMRI, PET)
45
Real world applications of cognitive neuroscience
Identifying autism early on, OCD brain activity levels
46
What are the assumptions of the biological approach?
All thoughts, feelings and behaviours ultimately have a physiological basis. To understand human behaviour, we have to look to biological structures and processes; e.g. genes , brain structure, brain chemistry (neurotransmitters), hormones .
47
What is the background of the biological approach?
The nature vs nurture debate highlights a key debate in psychology over the relative influence of genetics over behaviour; an extreme biological position assumes that behaviour is solely due to nature.
48
What does the biological approach argue the role of genetics is in relation to OCD?
The biological approach emphasises the role of inherited genes in shaping behaviour. Research into candidate genes aims to identify the specific genes that create a vulnerability for disorders such as OCD. Disorders such as OCD are recognised as being polygenic (multiple genes combine to cause the disorder) and aetiologically heterogeneous (different combinations of genes cause the disorder in different people).
49
How do twin studies for OCD support the biological approach?
Twin studies can be used to support a genetic explanation for OCD by showing around double the concordance rate for identical ( MZ ) twins, who share 100% of their genes compared to non-identical ( DZ ) twins who share 50% of their genes.
50
What neurological factors does the biological approach take into account? Use OCD as an example
The biological approach also recognises the role of brain physiology and neurochemistry; for example, according to the biological approach, abnormal functioning of specific brain regions such as the orbitofrontal cortex and an imbalance of levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin are seen as key factors contributing to the development of OCD. Therefore, treatments developed by the biological approach aim to make physiological changes, in order to change behaviour: e.g the main treatment for OCD is SSRIs which work by blocking reuptake channels so serotonin cannot be taken back up by the presynaptic neuron from the synapse, and so this means that more serotonin is taken in by receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron
51
What is genotype?
The genetic configuration of an individual coded in their chromosomes and fixed at conception
52
What is phenotype?
The observable expression of an individual determined by the combined effects of genes and environment
53
What is concordance rate?
A measure of similarity (measured as a %) between two individuals (or sets of individuals) for a given trais
54
What are identical and non identical twins known as scientifically?
Identical: MZ Non-identical: DZ
55
If MZ twins have a higher concordance rate for a psychological disorder such as OCD compared to DZ twins, this suggests a genetic basis for that characteristic. Why?
As MZ twins have same genotype, share 100% of genes, whereas DZ twins only share 50% of their genetics, and so a higher concordance rate for behaviour suggests role of genetics
56
What is the argument for nature vs nurture in concordance rates?
MZ twins treated in more similar ways as identical, people likely to give them similar treatment, whereas DZ twins are not identical, and so will have different treatment
57
What type of experiments are twin and adoption studies? Explain your answer.
Quasi, as already in groups, can’t manipulate independent variable
58
What is evolutionary psychology?
A biological approach which views psychological behaviours as adaptations, i.e. products of natural selection that have helped our survival and development as a species at different points in our evolutionary development
59
What is evolution?
A change in allele frequencies over time
60
What is Darwin's theory of natural selection?
Genetic variation exists between individuals in a population. Some individuals will be more likely to survive (e.g. by being better at fighting disease) than others. Individuals that are better at surviving than others have a selective advantage Individuals with a selective advantage are more likely to survive to reproduce than others. This means that the genes of an individual with a selective advantage are more likely to be passed onto offspring than the genes of an individual without a selective advantage Individuals with a selective advantage are more likely to pass on their beneficial alleles than other individuals. The next generation is more likely to have alleles that provide a selective advantage than alleles that do not. This generation is also more likely to survive to reproduce and pass on their genes. This causes the alleles that provide a selective advantage to increase in frequency in the population.
61
What is biological preparedness?
Fight or flight response hard wired into brains to enable survival (amygdala), biological preparedness to be scared of things that can harm us, hence common phobias (spiders, snakes, the dark)
62
What is the id?
Acts on the ‘pleasure principle’ – A seething mass of unconscious drives and instincts present from birth. Includes biological drives. Entirely selfish and wants instant gratification
63
What is the superego?
‘morality principle’ – Internalised sense of right and wrong formed through identification with our same-sex parent in the phallic stage (3-5 yrs). Punishes ego with guilt Ethical component of the personality and provides the moral standards by which the ego operates. The superego's criticisms, prohibitions, and inhibitions form a person's conscience, and its positive aspirations and ideals represent one's idealized self-image
64
What is the ego?
‘reality principle’ – Develops around 2 years of age. Uses defence mechanisms to mediate between the conflicting demands of the id and superego.
65
What is the conscious mind?
The part of the mind we are aware of – everyday thoughts and feelings.
66
What is the preconscious mind?
Thoughts and memories not accessible at all times, but we may become aware of through dreams and ‘slips of the tongue’.
67
What is the unconscious mind?
Biological drives and instincts. Repressed thoughts, memories and feelings
68
Explain the oral stage (0-1yrs)
Pleasure source is mouth: Pleasure comes from breastfeeding. Conflict resolved by weaning away from mother’s breast. Consequence of unresolved conflict: Fixation Oral receptive: (not allowed to suck enough) passive, needy, will overeat, bite nails, smoke. Oral aggressive: (allowed to suck too freely) hostile, verbally aggressive
69
Explain the anal stage (1-3yrs)
Pleasure source is anus: pleasure comes from withholding and expelling faeces. Conflict resolved by toilet training. Consequence of unresolved conflict: Fixation Anal retentive - perfectionist, obsessive. Anal expulsive - thoughtless, messy.
70
Explain the phallic stage (3-5yrs)
Pleasure source is genitals Conflict resolved by oedipus/electra complex - resolved through the development of the superego. Consequence of unresolved conflict: Fixation Phallic personality - narcissistic, reckless.
71
Explain the latent stage (6-puberty)
Sexual urges are latent (dormant). Energy is directed into sports, hobbies and same-sex friendships. Consequence of unresolved conflict: Fixation No psycho-sexual development takes place.
72
Explain the genital stage (puberty-onwards)
Pleasure from sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty. Conflict resolved by following social rules/being in a heterosexual relationship. Consequence of unresolved conflict: Fixation Difficulty forming hetrosexual relationships. Sexual behaviour fixated at the oral, anal, or phallic stage.
73
What are defence mechanisms?
Unconscious strategies used by the ego to prevent it from being overwhelmed by this internal conflict. However, if overused in the long term they can lead to psychological problems
74
What is repression?
Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
75
What is denial?
Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
76
What is displacement?
Transferring feelings from the true source of a distressing emotion onto a substitute target.
77
How did Freud use case studies?
Detailed case studies of therapeutic work with clients informed theory and texts
78
What is free will (humanist approach)?
We are free, active agents who can determine own development, not determined by biology/past/unconscious
79
What is self actualisation (humanist approach)?
Full potential, best we can reach
80
What are the levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualisation
81
What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
Motivates behaviour, can only progress to next stage when we have fulfilled previous stage’s need
82
What is self image/concept and ideal self (humanist approach)?
The way people see themselves vs the person they want to be
83
What is congruence (humanist approach)?
Aim of Rogerian therapy, when self concept and ideal self are seen to match
84
What are conditions of worth (humanist approach)?
Boundaries set on love (often by parents) “i will love you if…”, likely to shape unrealistic ideal self, incongruent with self image, leads to negative feelings of self worth
85
What is the unconditional positive regard (humanist approach)?
Role of the therapist to provide this, offers unconditional, positive regard. Does not mean they approve of all actions, but seek to value and accept the client as they are at point on journey towards growth
86
Why is the humanist approach non-scientific?
Not interested in large scale scientific studies or making general laws about behaviour Focus on subjective experience of unique individual in case studies/therapy
87
What is client-centred therapy?
Non-directive approach to talk therapy where the client takes the lead in exploring their experiences and emotions, therapist's role is to provide a supportive and understanding environment

Psychology (12 decks)

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