Approaches in Psychology Flashcards
(104 cards)
1
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Psychology
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Scientific study of the mind, behaviour and experience
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Science
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A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigations, the aim is to discover general laws
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Behaviourist approach
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A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning
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Classical conditioning
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Learning by association. Occurs when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired together-an unconditioned stimulus and a new ‘neural’ stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unconditioned stimulus alone
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Operant conditioning
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A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include reinforcement and punishment
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Reinforcement
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A consequence of behaviour that increases likelihood of that behaviour being repeated (positive or negative)
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Social learning theory
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A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combing learning theory with role of cognitive factors
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Imitation
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Copying behaviour of others
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Identification
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When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model
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Modelling
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From the observers perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model, from the role models perspective modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated in an observer
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Vicarious reinforcement
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Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key factor in imitation
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What is behaviourist approach only interested in
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Studying behaviour that can be observed and measured, it is not concerned with mental processes of the mind as they were seen as irrelevant
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Was behaviourist research controlled or not
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Controlled, behaviourist tried to maintain more control and objectivity within their research and relied on lab studies as best way to do this
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What do behaviourist believe
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All behaviour is learnt, they described babies minds as ‘blank slates’ and this is written on by experience
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Following Darwin what did behaviourist suggest
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Suggested basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species which meant in behaviourist research animals can replace humans as experimental subjects
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What 2 important forms of learning did behaviourists indentify
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Classical conditioning and operant conditioning
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What is classical conditioning and who first demonstrated it
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Classical conditioning is learnt through association, first demonstrated by Pavlov
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How did Pavlov demonstrate classical conditioning
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Pavlov showed how dogs could be conditioned to salvage at sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as food, gradually Pavolvs dog learnt to associate sound of bell (stimuli) with food (another stimuli) and would produce salvation response every time bell was heard
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Using a dog what was Pavlov able to show
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How neutral stimulus, bell, can elicit a new learned response (conditional response) by association
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How did the dog learn to associate before, during and after conditioning
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Before: food(unconditioned stimulus) ->response=salvation (unconditional response), bell (neural stimulus) ->response=no salvation (no conditioned response) During:bell+food = salvation, After:bell(conditioned stimulus) -> response= salvation (conditioned response)
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What did Skinner suggest and for what type of conditioning
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That learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment, in operant conditioning behaviour is shaped by its consequences
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What is positive reinforcement and example.
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Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed such as praise from a teacher for answering question correct in class
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What is negative reinforcement and example
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Occurs when animal/human avoids something unpleasant so outcome is positive experience, eg. When student hands in hwk so not told off, avoidance of something unpleasant is negative reinforcement
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What animal did Skinner use for his experiment and what did he do
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He used rats, rats may learn through negative reinforcement that pressing a lever Leeds to avoidance of electric shock. In his experiment if rat activated lever it would get food(positive reinforcement) and behaviour repeated, but if rat didn’t touch lever it would get electric shock (negative reinforcement) so rat pulled lever
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What is a strength of behaviourist approach
Behaviourist approach based on well-controlled research, they focused on measurement of observable behaviour with highly controlled lab settings. By breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus-response units all extraneous variables were removed so cause-&-effect relation established. Eg. Skinner clearly demonstrated how reinforcement worked on animal behaviour. Suggests behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility
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What is the counterpoint of behaviourist approach having well controlled research
Problem with stimulus-response units is it may have over simplified learning processes, by reducing behaviour to such simple components behaviourists may have ignored other important influences on learning like that of human thought. Other approaches like SLT and cognitive approach draw better attention to mental processes involved in learning. Suggests learning is more complex that observable behaviour alone and private mental processes are also essential
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What is a strength of behaviourist approach
Principles of conditioning have been applied to real world behaviours and problems, like operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been successfully used in institutions(prisons/psychiatric wards)- work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens which are exchanged for privileges. Also classical conditioning has been applied/used to treat phobias which increases vale of behaviourist approach as it has wide spread application
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What is a limitation of behaviourist approach
It sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences, Skinner suggested everything we do is sum total of money ur reinforcement history, when something happens we may think ‘I decided to do that’ but according to Skinner our past conditioning history determined outcome. This ignores any influence that free will has on behaviour (Skinner said free will is an illusion). This is an extreme position and ignores influence of conscious decision making processes on behaviour suggested by cognitive approach
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Who was little Albert
A orphan baby who originally wasn’t scared of mice but they used classical conditioning to create a fear. He associated loud banging noise with white mouse creating a fear of mice
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Did psychologists Bandura agree or disagree with behaviourist what did Bandura propose
Bandura agreed w behaviourist that behaviour is learnt from experience but his social learning theory proposed a different way in which people learn- through observation and imitation of others- social(involving others)
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What does social learning theory suggest
That learning occurs directly through classical and operant conditioning but also indirectly
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What must happen for indirect learning to happen
An individual observes behaviour of others, learner may imitate this behaviour
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What does imitation occur
Generally only occurs if behaviour is seen to be rewarded (reinforced) rather than punished
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Give an example of imitation
Vicarious reinforcement occurs so learner observes a behaviour but more importantly observes consequences of a behaviour
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Why is social learning theory often described as a bridge between behaviourist learning theory and cognitive approach
As it focuses on how mental factors are involved in learning, these mental factors mediate (intervene) in learning processes to determine if a new response is acquired
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What are the 4 mental/meditational processes in learning theory identified by Bandura
1.attention(extent we notice certain behaviours) 2.retention (how well behaviour is remembered) 3.motor reproduction (ability of observer to perform behaviour) 4.motivation (will to perform behaviour, often determined by if behaviour was rewarded or punished)
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What do each of the the 4 meditational processes relate to
First 2 relate to learning behaviour and last 2 relate to performance of behaviour
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How is social learning theory different to traditional behaviourism
Learning and performance of behaviour don’t need to occur together which is different from traditional behaviourism and observed behaviours may be stored by observer and reproduced at a later time
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Who are more likely to imitate behaviours and what’s this process called
People, esp kids, are more likely to imitate people they identify with in a process called identification
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In identification what is the person they identify with called and what is the process of imitating a role model called
Role model and modelling
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When does a person become a role model
If they’re seen to have similar characteristics to observer or/and are attractive and have high status
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Do role models have to have a physical appearance in the environment
They don’t necessarily have a physical presence in the environment and this may have important implications for influence of media on behaviour
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What was the aim of Bandura Bobo doll study
To see if young children could learn to imitate aggressive behaviour
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What was the method of Bandura Bobo doll study
Children put in 2 experimental groups: 1 aggressive, 1 non-aggressive, then put into a room without observer to see if they would imitate behaviour of a confederate
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What was the results of Bandura Bobo doll study
Boys more physically aggressive and girls verbally aggressive, all were more aggressive when they had an aggressive role model
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What was conclusions of Bandura Bobo doll study
Just observing behaviour can make you imitate it
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What was evaluation of Bandura Bobo doll study
It’s a lab experiment so lacks ecological validity and has ethical issues
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What is a strength of SLT
It recognises importance of cognitive factors in learning. Neither classical or operant conditioning can offer adequate account of learning on their own, humans and animals store info about behaviour of others and use this to judge when certain actions are appropriate to perform. Bandura observed ‘learning would be more hazardous if people only rely on effect of their own action to inform them what to do. From observing others one forms idea of how new behaviours are performed and only layer this coded info serves as action guide’. Suggests SLT provides more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising role of meditational processes
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What is the counterpoint rn SLT recognising importance of cognitive factors
SLT critiqued for making little reference to influence of biological factors on SL. Although Bandura claims natural biological differences influences are learning potential, he thought learning itself is determined by environment. But, recent research suggests observational learning may be due to mirror neurones in brain which allow it to empathise with and imitate others. Suggests biological influences on SL were under-emphasised in SLT
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What is limitation of SLT (contrived Lab studies)
Evidence which SLT based on was gathered in lab studies, many of Banduras ideas were developed by observing young children’s behaviour in a lab, lab studies often criticised for contrived nature where participants respond to demand characteristics. In relation to Bobo doll it may be kids thought the purpose of doll was to strike it, so children were simply behaving the way they thought was expected of them . Suggests research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life
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What is strength of SLT (real world application)
SLT principles have been applied to many real world behaviours, SLT has advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour. SLT principles like modelling, imitation and reinforcement can account for how children learn from those around them, including media and explains how social norms passed through certain societies which has provided useful in explaining range of behaviours like how kids learn to understand their gender roles. This increases value of approach as it can account for real world behaviour
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What did Freud suggest in psychodynamic approach
That the part of our mind that work about and of, the conscious mind, is the tip of the iceberg, most of our mind is made up of the unconscious
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What is the unconscious mind
A vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts which influence our behaviour and personality, it is also where threatening or disturbing memories have been repressed to
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When can unconscious mind be accessed
During dreams or slips of the tongues (parapraxes) such as calling a teacher mum instead of ms
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What is under the surface of the conscious mind and what happens here
Precondition which contains thoughts and memories which aren’t in conscious awareness but can be accessed if desired
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What did Freud describe personality as in psychodynamic approach
Tripartite- composed of 3 parts
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What three parts did Freud say personality was composed of in psychodynamic approach
Id, ego and superego
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What is Id in psychodynamic approach
Primitive part of our personality, operates on pleasure principle, gets what it wants, it is a mass of unconscious drives and instincts, it is present at birth and through life id is selfish and demands instant gratification of its needs
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What is ego
Works on reality principle and mediates between id and superego. Develops at age 2 and role is to reduce conflict between demands of id and superego, it manages this by employing a number of defence mechanisms
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What is superego
Formed at the end of phallic stage around age 5, it’s our internalised sense of right and wrong. It’s based on morality principle and represents moral standards of the child’s same sex parent and punishes ego for wrongdoing by guilt
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What did Freud claim about child development in psychodynamic approach
Claimed child development had 5 stages and each stage except latency marked a different conflict a child must resolve to progress to next stage, Freud claimed any psychosexual conflict that’s unresolved leads to fixation and carries certain behaviours and conflicts associated with that stage to adult life
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What ages does oral occur, what does it involve and what happens if a child doesn’t resolve this conflict in Freud’s psychosexual stages
0-1years, focus of pleasure is the mouth, mothers breast is desired object, oral fixation includes smoking, bitting nails, sarcasm and being critical
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What ages does anal occur, what does it involve and what happens if a child doesn’t resolve this conflict in Freud’s psychosexual stages
1-3years, focus of pleasure is anus. Child gains pleasure by withholding and expelling faeces, if not overcome may become anal retentive (perfectionist/obsessive) or anal expulsive (thoughtless/messy)
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What ages does phallic occur, what does it involve and what happens if a child doesn’t resolve this conflict in Freud’s psychosexual stages
3-6years, focus of pleasure is genital area, child experiences odesius and Electra complex, if not overcome you have phallic personality (narcissistic, Reckless, maybe homosexual)
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What is latency in feuds psychosexual stages
Where earlier conflicts are repressed, happens after phallic stage
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What is genital in Freud’s psychosexual stages
The sexual desire becomes conscious alongside onset of puberty, if not overcome have difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
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How does ego cope with the difficult job of balancing conflict between demands of id and superego
It has help in the form of defence mechanisms
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What are defence mechanisms in psychodynamic approach
They are unconscious and ensure ego can prevent us being over whelmed by temporary threats/traumas
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Why are defends mechanisms regarded as psychologically unhealthy or undesirable
They involve distortion of reality so unhealthy as a long term solution
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What are the 3 defence mechanisms in psychodynamic approach and what do they do
Repression-forcing distressing memory out of conscious mind, denial- refusing to acknowledge some aspects of reality, displacement- transferring feeling from true source of distressing emotions onto a substitute target
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What is the Oedipus complex
Phallic stage in boys 3-5 develop incestuous feelings towards mother and murderous hatred for their love competitor, their farther
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What is Electra complex
Phallic stage in girls 3-5 experience penis envy, desire for their father and hate towards their mother, girls blame their mother of castrated state
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What is a strength of the psychodynamic approach (real world application)
Strength is it introduced idea of psychotherapy. Freud brought psychotherapy, a new form of therapy to the world and was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically. This new therapy employed a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious like dream analysis. Psychoanalysis claims to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions into conscious mind to deal with. Psychoanalysis was the forerunner to talking therapies like counselling. Shows value of psychodynamic approach in creating a new approach to treatment
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What is the counterpoint to psychodynamic approach having real world application
Although Freudian therapists claimed success for many client with mild neuroses, psychoanalysis regarded as inappropriate or even harmful for people experiencing more serious disorders like schizophrenia. Many symptoms of schizophrenia like paranoia and delusion thinking mean these people have lost their grip on reality and can’t articulate their thoughts required for psychoanalysis. Suggests Freudian therapy may not apply to all mental disorders
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What is a strength of psychodynamic approach (explanatory power)
Strength of Freud’s theory is ability to explain human behaviour. His theory is controversial and bizarre but has had a big influence on psychology. With behaviourism this approach remained a key force in psychology in first half of 1900s and used to explain many phenomena like personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender identity. Approach is also significant in drawing attention to connections of childhood experiences like relation w parents and later development. Suggests overall approach has a positive impact on psychology.
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What is a limitation of psychodynamic approach (untestable concepts)
Limitation of psychodynamic approach is much is untestable. Philosopher Popper argued this approach doesn’t meet scientific criterion of falsification. It’s not open to empirical testing so can’t be disproved. Many Freud concepts like Oedipus occur at unconscious level making them almost impossible to test. Also, his ideas based on subjective study of a single individual making it hard to say universal claims of human behaviour. Suggests Freud’s theory was pseudoscientific rather than established fact
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How is humanistic psychology different to other approaches
In aspect of free will, it claims humans are self determining and have free will
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What does humanistic psychology say about free will
People still affected by internal and external influences but also active agents who can determine their own development
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Due to them believing in free will what do humanistic psychologists like Roggers and Maslow reject
Scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour as as active agents we are all unique and psychology concerns itself with study of subjective experience rather than general law
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What is the humanistic approach often referred to in psychology
Person centred approach
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Who was Maslow and what was one of his main interests
Was one of the founders of humanistic movement in psychology, main interest was what motivates people, he described a hierarchy of needs that motivate our behaviour
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What did Maslow say was necessary to achieve primary goal of self-actualisation
Number of other deficiency needs must be met first
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What is the order of Maslow hierarchy of needs
Physiology, safety/security, love/belonging, self-esteem, self actualisation
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Give an example of how the hierarchy of needs works
If you want to do the best you can on a test, your more likely if your not hungry and tired
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When does a person move up Maslow hierarchy of needs
If they have met their current stage
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According to humanistic approach what to most people have a innate desire for
To reach their full potential, self actualisation represents highest level of Maslow hierarchy of needs
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What must be completed to reach self actualisation
All 4 lower levels of hierarchy (deficiency needs) must be met before individual works to self actualise (growth need) and reach their full potential, this applies to early development when baby focuses on physiological needs and applies throughout life
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What do humanistic psychologists regard personal growth as
As an essential part of what it is to be human,
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What is personal growth concerned with
With developing and changing a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal oriented
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Will everyone meet self actualisation
No but there are important psychological barriers that may prevent a person reaching their full potential
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What did Rogers argue in humanistic approach
To achieve personal growth an individuals concept of self must be equivalent or have congruence with their ideal self- if gap is too big person is in a state of incongruence and self actualisation not possible due to negative feelings of self worth
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What did Rogers develop to reduce gap between self concept and ideal self
Client centred therapy, counselling to help cope with problems of everyday living
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What did Rogers claim about many issues we experience as adults in humanistic approach
He claimed issues like worthlessness and low self esteem have roots in childhood and can often be explained by lack of unconditional positive regard from parents
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What did Rogers say about parents who give their child conditional love
They are storing up psychological problems for their child in the future
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How did Rogers see one of his roles as an effective therapist
As being able to provide his clients with unconditional positive regard that they didn’t receive in childhood
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What is strength of humanistic approach (not reductionist)
Strength is it rejects attempts to break up behaviour and experience into small components, reductionism. Behaviourist explain human and animal learning in terms of simple stimulus response connections, but supporters of cognitive approach see humans as no more than processing machines and biological approach reduces behaviour to basic physiological processes, Freud described whole personality as Id, ego and superego but humanistic approach advocates holism. So approach may have more validity than others by considering meaningful behaviour with real world context
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What is counterpoint of humanistic approach being non reductionist
Reductionist approach may be more scientific as ideals of science reduce behaviour to independent and dependent variables. Issue with humanistic psychology is unlike behaviourist there are few concepts that can be broken down to single variables and measured. Means humanistic psychology in general is short in empirical evidence to support its claims
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What is a strength of humanistic approach (positive approach)
Strength is its optimistic, humanistic psychologists praised for bringing person back not psychology and promoting positive image of human condition. Freud saw humans as slaves to their past but humanistic psychologists see all people as basically good and free to work towards achievements of their potential and be in control of their lives. Suggests that humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative to other approaches
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What is a limitation of humanistic approach (western cultural bias)
Limits is it may be culturally bias, many central ideas in this approach like individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth, are more associated with individualist cultures in the western world like USA. Collective cultures like India emphasise need of the group, community and interdependence, such cultures may not easily identify with these ideals and values like self actualisation. So it’s possible this approach isn’t universal and is a product of cultural context within which it was developed
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What is Rogers client centred therapy
It’s an important form of modern psychotherapy and led to general approach of counselling
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Why did river refer to patients as clients
He believed they were experts if their own condition, the therapy wasn’t directed by therapist, the client encouraged to finding their own solutions in a non-judgemental therapeutic atmosphere
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What did Roger say his clients should be treated with in client centred therapy
Genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard
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What does Rogerian therapy improve
Self-esteem, lowers incongruence and helps person become more fully functioning
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Why is client focused therapy praised but what is a down side
Praised as a forward looking approach, not dwelling on the past, but should only be used for mild psychological conditions like anxiety and low self-esteem
