Approaches notes

Question 1

What was Wundt’s influence on psychology as a science?

Answer 1

• Wundt’s ‘Experimental Psychology’ led to the subjects emergence as a science - all introspections were recorded under strictly controlled conditions using the same stimulus every time, and the same standardised instructions were issued to all participants allowing procedures to be replicated
• BUT… This is still regarded as controversial

Question 2

What is the criteria of a science?

Answer 2

• objectivity - scientific observations should be recorded without bias
• control - should occur in controlled situations
• replicability - findings should be easily replicated to make scientists confident in the results
• falsifiability (hypothesis testing) - Theories should generate predictions (hypotheses) which can be tested and proved either right or wrong
• generalisability - results can be used to explain and predict future behaviour (at other times or in other samples)

Question 3

What are the arguments for psychology as a science?

Answer 3

• Psychology should have the same aims as any other science
• The majority of major approaches within Psychology (Behavioural, Cognitive and Biological) use scientific procedures to investigate theories
  
  • They aim to do this in a controlled and way as possible

Question 4

What are the arguments against psychology as a science?

Answer 4

• Other approaches within Psychology are less scientific
  
  • They don’t use objective methods to study behaviour
  • These methods are often unreliable - self report and case study methods which can be biased and subjective
• Its very difficult to get a truly representative sample, so findings can’t be easily generalised
• Most psychology experiments are open to extraneous variables
  
  • Such as demand characteristics
  • These are very difficult to control

Question 5

What are psychology’s early roots?

Answer 5

• The basic principles of psychology can be traced back to the philosophers of ancient Greece.
  
  • Even the word ‘psychology’ is derived from Greek words. ‘Psyche’, meaning mind/soul, and ‘Logos’, meaning the study of.
• However, it wasn’t until the 16th C that the theories of modern psychology began to emerge.

Question 6

Who was Wilhelm Wundt?

Answer 6

• The ‘father of psychology’.
• Wundt was the first person to truly separate psychology from philosophy
  
  • He wanted to study the mind in a more structured and scientific way - wanted to document and describe the nature of the human consciousness (became known as Introspection)
  • structuralism - isolating the structure of the consciousness in this way
• In 1879 he opened the first Institute for Experimental Psychology, in Leipzig.

Question 7

What is Introspection?

Answer 7

• his was a technique that Wundt favoured as a way of uncovering what people where thinking and feeling
• It involves analysing your own internal thoughts, feelings and sensations after they were presented with certain stimuli (remember there were no brain scans!)

Question 8

How did introspection work?

Answer 8

1. Ppts trained to systematically report their own experience
2. Ppts focus on a stimulus (e.g. metronome)
3. …and on one mental process (e.g. memory)
4. Ppts produce report as trained
5. Wundt can now compare reports to generate theories.

Question 9

Advantages and disadvantages of introspection

Answer 9

• Introspection pioneered taking a scientific, reductionist approach to the study of human thoughts and behaviour (especially the cognitive approach). However…
• self-report responses are difficult to validate
  
  • people are subjectively reporting on their individual experiences:
    
    • they could be affected by things like social desirability bias
    • as self reports can’t be conformed or collaborated, they may not be valid

Question 10

What is the definition of empiricism?

Answer 10

Empiricism - the belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience. It is generally characterised by the use of the scientific method in psychology
- Empirical methods were first applied to the study of human beings by Wundt

Question 11

What is the definition of scientific method?

Answer 11

Scientific method - refers to the use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable, and the formulation, testing and modification of hypotheses based on these methods
- Introduced by Wundt and his followers - new ‘scientific approach’

Question 12

Sigmund Freud

Answer 12

1900s - Sigmund Freud - publishes The interpretation of dreams, and the psychodynamic approach is established. Freud emphasised the influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour, alongside development of his person centred therapy: psychoanalysis. He argued that physical problems could be explained in terms of conflicts within the mind.

Question 13

John B. Watson

Answer 13

1914 - John B. Watson - Didn’t like that introspection produced subjective data. He proposed that a truly scientific psychology should restrict itself only to studying phenomena that could be observed and measured. Writes Psychology as the Behaviourist views it and BF Skinner establishes the behaviourist approach. The psychodynamic and behaviourist approaches dominate psychology for the next 50 years. Focused on the scientific process including lab experiments.

Question 14

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

Answer 14

1950s - Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow develop the humanistic approach - the so called ‘third force’ in psychology, rejecting the views favoured by behaviourism and the psychodynamic approach that human behaviour was not determined by the individual. Humanistic psychologists emphasise the importance of self-determination and free will.

Question 15

1960s

Answer 15

the cognitive revolution came with the introduction of the digital computer. This gave psychologists a metaphor for the operations of the human mind. The cognitive approach reintroduces the study of mental processes to psychology but in a much more scientific way than Wundt’s earlier investigations. around the time of the cognitive revolution, Albert Bandura proposes the social learning theory. This approach draws attention to the cognitive factors in learning, providing a bridge between the newly established cognito9ve approach and traditional behaviourism

Question 16

What is the law of effect?

Answer 16

• A response that is followed by pleasant consequences becomes more probable and a response that is followed by unfavourable consequences becomes less probable. This is the basis for operant conditioning.
  
  • Voluntary behaviours are learned via reinforcement or punishment
    
    • reinforcement is where positive outcomes for behaviour are introduced in order to encourage that behaviour to continue. These can be either positive or negative reinforces
    • punishment is where negative outcomes are introduced in order to discourage a behaviour. These can either be positive or negative

Question 17

What are voluntary behaviours?

Answer 17

Voluntary behaviours are learned via reinforcement or punishment

Question 18

Define negative reinforcement.

Answer 18

Negative reinforcement - involves the removal of, or escaping from unpleasant consequences

Question 19

Define positive punishment.

Answer 19

Positive punishment - receiving something unpleasant

Question 20

Define negative punishment.

Answer 20

Negative punishment - removing something pleasurable

Question 21

What are the reinforcement schedules?

Answer 21

• Fixed schedule
  
  • In a fixed schedule, the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements is set and unchanging. The schedule is predictable.
• Variable schedule
  
  • In a variable schedule, the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements changes randomly. The schedule is unpredictable.
• Ratio schedule
  
  • A ratio schedule reinforcement occurs after a certain number of responses have been emitted.
• Interval schedule
  
  • Interval schedules involve reinforcing a behaviour after a period of time has passed.

Question 22

How can behaviour be shaped?

Answer 22

• Behaviour can be modified by reinforcing successive approximations to target behaviour.
• Reinforcement can be scheduled by ratio (every 10th time) or interval (every 10 minutes e.g. monthly salary)
• The most effective learning schedule is a variable ratio e.g. the animal is reinforced on average every 10th time, but it is unpredictable)

Question 23

What are the advantages of operant conditioning?

Answer 23

The methods used to test OC were highly scientific

• Skinner’s use of his ‘Skinner-Box’ to test the theory under controlled circumstances is a good example
• Having high internal validity allowed hm to establish a casual relationship (a relationship between two events, or variables, in which one event or process causes an effect on the other event or process) between conditions he was testing
• This shows that operant conditioning can be used to shape behaviour

Operant conditioning has had many useful applications in the real world

• e.g. through a token economy
  
  • a system where desirable behaviour can be reinforced with the use of tokens, which can then be exchanged for other rewards
  • e.g. Upper and Newton (1971) found that the weight gain associated wit taking antipsychotics could be reduced wit token economy regimes

Question 24

What are the disadvantages of operant conditioning?

Answer 24

skinner’s research has been criticised for the use of non-human animals

• e.g. the use of rats and pigeons in the skinner box
• these are very different animals to humans and may learn at different speeds and in different ways
• therefore, the results may not be generalizable to humans, and may not help us to understand human learning
• BUT… the Upper and Newton (1971) evidence can be usefully applied to shape human behaviour

Question 25

What are the advantages of behaviourism?

Answer 25

Introduced an empiricist approach to psychology

• This made psychology a lot more scientific and high in interval validity
• This allowed cause and effect relationships to be discovered between stimuli and behaviour

Question 26

What are the disadvantages of behaviourism?

Answer 26

Behaviourist explanations are deterministic. They ignore the concept of free will

• skinner argued strongly that free will is merely an illusion
• this is a depressing vie of human nature

Behaviourist explanations are also reductionist (It doesn’t consider how other factors interact together in influencing behaviour which reduces the validity of the approach/debate.)

Question 27

What is the link between behaviourism and gambling?

Answer 27

Gambling addictions can be explained by the principles of behaviourisms. The lottery and fruit machines use variable ratio to make the player believe that there is a higher chance of winning than there is.

Question 28

What is the behaviourist approach?

Answer 28

This approach assumes that a person is the product of their environment (nurture), they are born a ‘blank slate’ and all behaviour is learned. those who take this approach argue that in order for psychology to be scientific it should focus on observable behaviour which can be objectively measured, rather than our own thoughts, which can’t easily be measured

Question 29

What assumptions are there of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 29

• Behaviour is learned
  
  • all behaviour (apart from reflexes in new-borns) is learned from experience.
  • we are essentially born ‘Tabula Rasa’, or blank slates
  • this is known as empiricism
• the mind is ‘irrelevant’
  
  • we can’t directly observe what people are thinking
  • the only measurable data is gained from observing behaviour directly
• environmental determinism
  
  • the is no free will. Our behaviour is controlled by forces in the environment, and can only be changed by changing the environment
• animals and humans learn in the same ways
  
  • humans learn in the same way as other animals, through simple stimulus-response associations
  • we learn to drive in the same way that a cat learns to use a cat flap
  • therefore, animal studies can be used to make generalisations about humans
  • experimental results can be used to make laws about human behaviour (a nomothetic approach )

Question 30

What is classical conditioning?

Answer 30

• a way of learning from our environment where we associate two stimuli, so that one comes to cause the same response as the other
• this is famously demonstrated in Pavlov’s research with dogs

Question 31

What did Pavlov discover?

Answer 31

• classical conditioning explains how we associate different things with reflexive actions, and so reflexive actions start occurring in response to different stimuli
• Pavlov discovered that any object or event which the dogs learned to associate with food (such as a food bowl or bell) would trigger the same response, he realised he had made an important discovery, and that he devoted the rest of his career to studying this type of learning

Question 32

What was ‘Little Albert’ (Watson and Rayner 1920)?

Answer 32

• Watson and Rayner demonstrated that fear could be developed through classical conditioning. Watson proposed that the emotion of fear in infants is a natural response to loud noise.
• An 11 month-old child known as Little Albert showed no fear of stimuli such s a white rat, or cotton wool. He di however show a fear response to a loud noise behind him, a hammer hitting a steel bar. The experimenters made this noise several times, at the same time presenting him with a white rat. Albert developed a fear of rats (and indeed of all white furry things), a process called generalisation.

Question 33

What is ecological validity?

Answer 33

Ecological validity - refers to whether a study’s findings can be generalized to additional situations or settings.

Question 34

What are the principles of classical conditioning?

Answer 34

Timing
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Generalisation

Question 35

Define timing.

Answer 35

Timing - if the NS cannot be used to predict the UCS (e.g. if it occurs after the UCS or the time interval between the two is too great), then conditioning does not take place

Question 36

Define extinction.

Answer 36

Extinction - Pavlov discovered that unlike the UCR, the CR does not become permanently established as response. After a few presentations of the CS in the absence of the UCS, it loses its ability to produce the CR

Question 37

Define spontaneous recovery.

Answer 37

Spontaneous recovery - following extinction, if the CS and the UCS are then paired together once again, the link between them is made much more quickly

Question 38

Define generalisation.

Answer 38

Generalisation - Pavlov discovered that once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS

Question 39

Define stimulus.

Answer 39

stimulus - anything, internal or external, that brings about a response

Question 40

Define response.

Answer 40

response - any reaction in the presence of the stimulus

Question 41

Define neutral stimulus.

Answer 41

neutral stimulus (NS) -a stimulus which does not naturally produce a response

Question 42

Define unconditioned stimulus.

Answer 42

unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a stimulus that produces a reflex reaction

Question 43

Define unconditioned response.

Answer 43

unconditioned response (UCR) - an innate, reflex response

Question 44

Define conditioned stimulus.

Answer 44

conditioned stimulus (CS) - the stimulus which produces the learned response after an association has taken place

Question 45

Define conditioned response.

Answer 45

conditioned response (CR) - learning by association. It occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together.

Question 46

What are the advantages of classical conditioning?

Answer 46

• There is research support that classical conditioning can affect behaviour
  
  • E.g. Watson and Rayner (1920) showed that CC could create phobias…
• Classical conditioning has useful applications, e.g. as an effective in the treatment of phobias
  
  • systematic desensitisation
• Gilroy et al. (2003) conducted an experiment to assess the effectiveness of desensitisation as a treatment for people with a phobia of spiders
  
  • Grp1 received desensitisation therapy for their phobia. Grp 2 were the control group and had ‘relaxation without exposure’
  • After both 3 and 33 months the SD group were less fearful on a spider phobia questionnaire than the control group
  • This CS has stopped producing the CR. This known as extinction

Question 47

What are the disadvantages of classical conditioning?

Answer 47

• Classical conditioning is a reductionist explanation of behaviour
  
  • It explains behaviour by breaking down to just a single explanation (in this case stimulus-response associations)
  • This is over simplistic, as it ignores all the other things that could affect behaviour

Question 48

What is social learning theory?

Answer 48

Later behaviourists suggest that there must be some meditational processes which lie between the stimulus-response that influence our behaviour. This approach assumes that mental processes are important in how people learn behaviour. Also it seems possible that we can learn by observing another persons behaviour which behaviourism didn’t allow for

• SLT sees people as active manipulators of their of their own environment
• concerned with human rather than animal behaviour
• vicarious reinforcement - watching someone else get a punishment/reward for their actions

Question 49

What is modelling?

Answer 49

• In order for social learning to take place, someone has to demonstrate, or morsel, the behaviour to be learned
• There are several different types of model:
  
  • live models - parents/teachers/peers
  • Symbolic models - celebrities, sports stars, or characters form films or tv

Question 50

What is imitation?

Answer 50

• Models provide examples of behaviour that can be observed by the individual and then reproduce in a process known as imitation
• research on imitation has shown that, unlike the slow learning process of conditioning, whole patterns of behaviour can be rapidly acquired when a model is present
• There are several key determinants:
  
  • The characteristics of the model
  • The observers perceived ability to replicate the behaviour
  • The observed consequences
• self efficacy - an individual’s belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviours necessary to produce specific performance attainments

Question 51

What is identification?

Answer 51

• This refers to the extent to which the observer relates to the model
  
  • this is often represented by how similar they are to the model
• Identification occurs when the observer feels they are similar enough to the model so that they will experience the same outcomes in the observed situation
• research suggests that children are much more likely to identify and potentially learn from models who are similar to them
  
  • particularly same sex models

Question 52

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 52

• This concept suggests that an individual does not need to experience rewards or punishments directly in order for learning to take place
• Instead, they can observe the consequences experienced by the model and make judgements based on the likelihood of them experiencing the same outcomes
  
  • This is the cognitive process that Bandura claims to differentiate SLT from other forms of conditioning

Question 53

What are the 4 mediational processes?

Answer 53

• for effective learning to take place, cognitive mediational processes need to occur:
  
  1. Attention - you have to pay attention to the behaviour
  2. Retention - you need to remember what you saw
  3. Reproduction - you have to judge whether you are able to reproduce the behaviour
  4. Motivation - you have to evaluate the consequences of the behaviour

Question 54

What was Bandura’s experiment?

Answer 54

Hypothesis: That those who watched aggressive adults will imitate them and that those who watched an adult of the same sex as them will be more likely to replicate their actions than those of an opposite sex

Sample: Tested 36 boys and 36 girls from Stanford University Nursery School aged between 3 to 6. researchers pre-tested the children and judged their aggressive behaviour on four 5-point rating scales.

Procedure 1: In the first room they see an aggressive adult beat up a bobo doll. Or they see a non aggressive model. Or they saw no model at all.

Aggression Arousal: All children were taken into a room with toys. As soon as the child started playing with them, the experimenters then took the toys away

Observation in room: The child went into a room with non aggressive toys and bobo doll. They were watched through a one way mirror and observations were made at 5 second intervals

Summary results: Those who observed the aggressive model had more aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups. Boys were more physically aggressive and there was little difference in verbal aggression. Boys were more likely to imitate same sex models

The idea at the time was that watching aggression would purge you of aggression. The experiment concluded that this was indeed not true. Boys who watched men had the closest imitation. What the children saw, the children did. Banduras experiment took place, just as tv was being entered into the home - repeated the experiment later on of aggression from the tv. Children imitated what they did. How we learn as we grow changes, we develop empathy and the ability to reflect on what we see.

Question 55

What was Bandura, ross and ross (1963)?

Answer 55

• would children only imitate aggressive role models seen in real life, or in film or cartoons as well?
• The basic procedure was the same as for the previous study, but one group watched a film of the aggressive model, and another watched a film where the aggressive model was dressed as a cartoon character

Question 56

What was Bandura et al (1963)?

Answer 56

Children were more aggressive after watching filmed and cartoon models

Question 57

What did Bandura research in 1965?

Answer 57

• Would imitation change if they saw the model rewarded or punished?
• IV is now whether the model is rewarded, punished or there were no consequences
• In the Reward condition, the experimenter arrived a praised the model (”Rocky”) for his “superb aggressive performance” and gave Rocky sweets, which he ate
• In the Punishment condition, the experimenter called Rocky “a big bully” and hit him with a rolled-up newspaper
• The ‘Model Punished’ condition produced much less imitation, especially among the girls. The ‘Reward’ condition produced about the same imitation form girls and boys as the ‘No Consequences’ condition (though boys were more aggressive than girls overall)

Question 58

What are the strengths and weaknesses of Banduras studies?

Answer 58

• Strengths:
  
  • Banduras studies took place in carefully controlled environments, increasing the internal validity of the studies
• Weaknesses:
  
  • Aggression could have been produced because of demand characteristics, rather than genuine observational learning

Question 59

What are the strengths and weaknesses of the SLT?

Answer 59

Strengths:

• The principles of SLT have had useful applications to real-life human behaviour
  
  • e.g. Criminal Behaviour
• Osborne and West (1979)
  
  • 40% of sons with fathers with criminal convictions had committed a crime before the age of 18, compared to only 13% of a control group
• Farringdon et al (2006)
  
  • Found that one of the most important risk factor at the age of 8-10 for later offending was family criminality
• SLT was also used to justify a “watershed” on TV, where violence, sexual content or obscene language are only shown after 9pm

Limitations:

• SLT is reductionist, as it disregards other potential influences on behaviour… such as biology (though it is a fuller explanation than just behaviourism)
  
  • e.g. the development of criminal behaviour (see above) behaviour may not be entirely due to SLT, but instead may be influenced by genetics
• Therefore SLT does not provide a full explanation of behaviour (though it is a fuller explanation than just behaviourism)
• Also, if there are so many potential influences on specific behaviour, it becomes very difficult to show how one influence (e.g. social learning) can be the main casual issue

Question 60

When and why was the emergence of cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 60

• An approach studies the links between brain structure and function and cognition
  
  • e.g. are different areas of brain involved for different cognitive processes?
  • Does activity in an area/ areas change for different tasks/ processes?
• The influence of neuroscience on Psychology begins in 70s and 80s
• Modern brain imaging techniques led to the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Question 61

What methods are used in cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 61

• Lesion studies
  
  • Causing brain damage (almost always in animals) to see how behaviour changes
• Case studies of brain damage
  
  • e.g. in humans after an accident
• Neuroimaging (brain scanning)
  
  • Pinpointing areas of the brain which are active during certain tasks
  • e.g. PET scans are used to demonstrate brain activity in memory tasks

Question 62

Give one practical application of cognitive neuroscience.

Answer 62

• Areas of the brain associated with memory:
  
  • Research has found that the prefrontal cortex is active when individuals are working on a task in immediate (i.e. STM) memory (Courtney et al. 1997), whereas the hippocampus is related to episodic LTM formation (Maguire et al. 2000)
  • This tells us that different parts of the brain are used for different forms of memory
  • Maguires famous studies used London taxi drivers to investigate long term memory

Question 63

What are the advantages of the cognitive approach?

Answer 63

• One strength of the cognitive approach is that it provides a less simplistic account of behaviour than the behaviourist approach
  
  • it considers the impact of mental processes on behaviour; often overlooked by other approaches
• HOWEVER the approach may still be guilty of machine reductionism
  
  • It assumes that everyone processes information the same way (like an information processing machine)
  • This ignores the effect of other factors, such as emotion, personality or biology, which may affect behaviour
• The approach therefore does not provide a full explanation of behaviour
• The approach also has many useful real life applications
  
  • for example, it has had a large influence on the development of therapies such as, cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT)
• The approach is highly scientific. It has always employed highly controlled and rigorous methods of study

Question 64

What are the disadvantages of the cognitive approach?

Answer 64

• One weakness of the cognitive approach is that the research may lack ecological validity
  
  • Research is often carried out in overly controlled, artificial environments
  • This may mean that it is difficult to generalise findings from these experiments to behaviour in the real world

Question 65

What does the cognitive approach assume?

Answer 65

Assumes that our internal mental processes (e.g. our memories, thinking and opinions) are important features in influencing human behaviour. Cognitive psychologists believe we are all like computers: input - processing - output

Question 66

Define the cognitive approach.

Answer 66

Cognitive approach - the term ‘cognitive’ has come to mean ‘mental processes’, so this approach is focused on how our mental processes (e.g., thoughts, perceptions, attention) affect behaviour

Question 67

Define internal mental processes.

Answer 67

Internal mental processes - ‘Private’ operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response

Question 68

Define Schema.

Answer 68

Schema - a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience

Question 69

Define Inference.

Answer 69

Inference - The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour

Question 70

Define Cognitive neuroscience.

Answer 70

Cognitive neuroscience - The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes

Question 71

What do Cognitive Psychologists do?

Answer 71

• Unlike with the behavioural approach, cognitive psychologists focus on the internal workings of the mind and explains behaviour through cognitive processes
  
  • perception, language, attention and memory
• Like the behavioural approach, cognitive psychology uses experimental methods to test theories scientifically
• The workings of the human mind is often compared to the workings of a computer
  
  • Input, process and output

Question 72

What are the key assumptions of the Cognitive Approach?

Answer 72

• Behaviour can best be understood by looking at the processes which come between an environmental stimulus and the behavioural response
• Cognitive psychologists reject the behaviourists explanation of learning as a result of random trial and error. Instead they argue that cognitive processes operate in an organised and systematic manner
• The computer analogy. The human mind is compared to a computer and human beings are seen as information processors who absorb information from the outside world, code and interpret it, store it and retrieve it
• Inference. Cognitive psychologists argue that insights into mental processes may be inferred from an individuals behaviour
  
  • This means making assumptions about processes which cannot be directly observed
• models. From their inferences, cognitive psychologists may build either theoretical or computer models of cognitive processes
  
  • theoretical - model is simplified, usually pictorial, representation of a particular mental processes. They often include boxes and arrows to show cause and effect of the stages of a particular mental processes
• cognitive psychologists use experimental methods with its emphasis on objectivity control and replicability

Question 73

What is the Computer Model of Information Processing? Why did this come into fruition?

Answer 73

• during the 1950s and 1960s, computers became more and more prominent
• during this time, psychologists began to drew analogies between the way humans and computers functioned:
  
  • the brain is described as a processor - the thing that makes things happen,
  • Some parts of the brain form networks
  • Some parts work sequentially - one process must finish before another starts
  • some parts can work in parallel - information travels to and fro along lots of paths at the same time

Question 74

Where does the Computer Model of Information Processing analogy fail?

Answer 74

• Humans are often influenced by emotional and motivational factors
  
  • something that doesn’t effect computers
• Humans have a potentially unlimited, yet unreliable memory, whereas computers have a limited but reliable memory
• Humans have free will - the ability to choose between decisions
  
  • computers are programmed by others to respond in a specific way

Question 75

What is meant by fundamental attribution error?

Answer 75

the tendency for people to over-emphasize dispositional or personality-based explanations for behaviours observed in others while under-emphasizing situational explanations. In other words, people have a cognitive bias to assume that a person’s actions depend on what “kind” of person that person is rather than on the social and environmental forces that influence the person.

Question 76

What is a schema and what is its basic use?

Answer 76

• A schema is a mental framework of beliefs and expectations taht influence cognit9ve processing
• They are developed through experience
• They contain all the information you know about an object, action or concept
• They help you organise and interpret information. Schema enable us to process vast amounts of information rapidly, helping to prevent cognitive overload

Question 77

How do schemas develop?

Answer 77

• When information is consistent with a schema, it is assimilated into the schema, so strengthening the schema
• When information is inconsistent with a schema, accommodation occurs. The schema has to change in order to resolve the problem

Question 78

What types of schemas are there?

Answer 78

Role Schemas
Event Schemas
Self Schemas

Question 79

What are role schemas?

Answer 79

• Role Schemas:
  
  • Ideas about behaviour which is expected from someone in a certain role, setting or situation

Question 80

What are event schemas?

Answer 80

• Event Schemas:
  
  • Also called scripts. Ideas about what happens in a given scenario

Question 81

What are self schemas?

Answer 81

• Self Schemas:
  
  • These contain information about ourselves based on physical characteristics and personality
  • These can affect how you would act in a given situation

Question 82

What are the disadvantages of schemas?

Answer 82

• Schemas may lead to prejudice and bias. Some schemas can stop us from learning new information
  
  • Stereotypes can cause a bias in the way we process information
  • We are more likely to pay attention to information we can assimilate
  • We are more likely to ignore information we would have to accommodate
  • This may mean that we only remember the information that fits with our expectations!

Question 83

What are the advantages of schemas?

Answer 83

• Schema theory has had useful applications to real life situations, such as improving the reliability of eye-witness testimony
  
  • When giving a witness statement, any memory gaps are likely to be filled with what is expected in that situation
  • The cognitive interview technique tries to reduce the impact of schemas on memory by changing the order - e.g. asking the witness to start at the end and report in reverse

Question 84

How can schemas be both good and bad?

Answer 84

Schemas can be both good and bad. For example, schemas can have useful applications to real life situations, such as improving the reliability of eye-witness testimonies (when giving a witness statement, any memory gaps are likely to be filled with what is expected of that situation). However schemas can lead to prejudice and bias. They can stop us from learning new information (stereotypes can cause bias in the way we process information.

Question 85

Empiricism

Answer 85

a philosophical belief that states your knowledge of the world is based on your experiences, particularly your sensory experiences. According to empiricists, our learning is based on our observations and perception; knowledge is not possible without experience.

Question 86

Introspection

Answer 86

the first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations

Question 87

Scientific method

Answer 87

a standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results. Researchers make observations in order to describe and measure behaviour.

Question 88

Behaviourist

Answer 88

This approach assumes that a person is the product of their environment (nurture), they are born a ‘blank slate’ and all behaviour is learned. those who take this approach argue that in order for psychology to be scientific it should focus on observable behaviour which can be objectively measured, rather than our own thoughts, which can’t easily be measured

Question 89

Classical conditioning

Answer 89

a way of learning from our environment where we associate two stimuli, so that one comes to cause the same response as the other

Question 90

Operant conditioning

Answer 90

a method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behaviour. Through operant conditioning, behaviour that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, and behaviour that is punished will rarely occur.

Question 91

Punishment

Answer 91

punishment is where negative outcomes are introduced in order to discourage a behaviour. These can either be positive or negative

Question 92

Reinforcement

Answer 92

reinforcement is where positive outcomes for behaviour are introduced in order to encourage that behaviour to continue. These can be either positive or negative reinforces

Question 93

Identification

Answer 93

This refers to the extent to which the observer relates to the model, this is often represented by how similar they are to the model. Identification occurs when the observer feels they are similar enough to the model so that they will experience the same outcomes in the observed situation. Research suggests that children are much more likely to identify and potentially learn from models who are similar to them - particularly same sex models

Question 94

Imitation

Answer 94

Models provide examples of behaviour that can be observed by the individual and then reproduce in a process known as imitation. Research on imitation has shown that, unlike the slow learning process of conditioning, whole patterns of behaviour can be rapidly acquired when a model is present. There are several key determinants: The characteristics of the model, The observers perceived ability to replicate the behaviour, The observed consequences.

Question 95

self efficacy

Answer 95

an individual’s belief in his or her capacity to execute behaviours necessary to produce specific performance attainments

Question 96

Meditational processes

Answer 96

• for effective learning to take place, cognitive mediational processes need to occur:
  1. Attention - you have to pay attention to the behaviour
  2. Retention - you need to remember what you saw
  3. Reproduction - you have to judge whether you are able to reproduce the behaviour
  4. Motivation - you have to evaluate the consequences of the behaviour

Question 97

Modelling

Answer 97

In order for social learning to take place, someone has to demonstrate, or morsel, the behaviour to be learned. There are several different types of model: live models - parents/teachers/peers and symbolic models - celebrities, sports stars, or characters form films or tv

Question 98

Theoretical models

Answer 98

diagrammatic representations of the steps involved in internal mental processes, e.g. the information-processing model.

Question 99

what is the comparative method?

Answer 99

• comparative method (animal studies) - where animals are studied and conclusions are generalised to humans.
  
  • Research has found that mice reared alone showed a tendency to attack other mice when first exposed to them. This must be biological because they couldn’t have learned the behaviour, suggesting that aggression has a biological basis.

Question 100

what are scanning techniques?

Answer 100

• scanning techniques - Biological psychologists can scan the brain to determine the influence of biological structures on behaviour.
  
  • For instance, MRI scans of London taxi drivers showed that they have larger hippocampi than a control group. This suggests that the hippocampus is involved in spatial navigation.

Question 101

what is an example of a case study of the biological approach?

Answer 101

• case studies - people who go through accidents and suffer brain damage can be studied to tell us about the functions of different regions of the brain.
  
  • For example, Phineas Gage suffered damage to his ventromedial frontal lobes when an iron rod went through his head (he survived!). He had difficulty making rational decisions and processing emotions. This led psychologists to believe that these are the functions of the ventromedial frontal lobes.

Question 102

What are the strengths of the biological approach?

Answer 102

• It is considered one of the most scientific approaches in psychology
  
  • research is highly controlled, reliable and objective
  • this means it can take a nomothetic approach to behaviour
• The biological approach has had many useful applications to everyday life, for example in the development of treatments
  
  • it is based on the assumption that if a behaviour has a biological origin, then it can be treated biologically

Question 103

What are the limitations of the biological approach?

Answer 103

• The approach is very reductionist
  
  • It often doesn’t take into account the influence of people’s environment, their family, childhood experiences or their social situation
  • other approaches consider these to be very important
• research into biology is often socially sensitive
  
  • using biology to explain a behaviour can lead to people assigning blame or responsibility for that behaviour onto someone else
  • as people can’t change their biology, biological explanations can leave people feeling helpless, or not taking responsibility for their behaviour
• the approach is also deterministic - ignoring the free will in human behaviour
  
  • biological determinism is the idea that all behaviour is controlled by biological forces, such as genes or the nervous system

Question 104

How can brain structure be used to explain differences in behaviour?

Answer 104

• Biological psychologists can use brain structure to explain differences in behaviour. Modern approaches use structural brain scans
  
  • For example MRI scans:
    
    • we can link differences in brain structure to behaviours
  • Memory (and Biopsychology)
    
    • Maguire (2000) found that London taxi drivers have a larger hippocampus than controls

Question 105

What is neurochemistry?

Answer 105

• Neurotransmitters are chemical messenger released when a nerve impulse reaches the end of one neuron
  
  • some make an impulse in the next neuron more likely - referred to as excitatory neurotransmitters
  • some make an impulse in the next neuron less likely - referred to as inhibitory neurotransmitters
• e.g. Seo et al. (2008) found that high levels of dopamine was linked to aggression and violent behaviour

Question 106

What are hormones?

Answer 106

• hormones are chemicals produced by the endocrine glands, such as the pituitary gland
• After a signal from the brain, they are secreted into the bloodstream towards their targeted areas
• e.g. melatonin is a hormone which controls sleep-wake patterns

Question 107

What is the biological approach?

Answer 107

Since the mind appears to reside in the brain, all thoughts and feelings and behaviours ultimately have a biological cause (nature). Our genetics, hormones, brain structure and neurotransmitters influence what we do and how we feel.

Question 108

What are genes?

Answer 108

genes - the passing of characteristics from generation to the next through genes

Question 109

What does heredity mean?

Answer 109

heredity - he process in which traits are passed down genetically from one generation to the next.

Question 110

What are biological structures?

Answer 110

biological structure - an arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing

Question 111

What are the key assumptions of the biological approach?

Answer 111

• Human behaviour can be explained in terms of biological factors
  
  • e.g. evolution, genetics, hormones and the nervous system
• If we can explain behaviour using biological factors then we can also treat it biologically
  
  • such as through the use of drugs or surgery
• experimental research conducted on animals can inform us about human behaviour
  
  • this is because we share a lot of biological similarities with animals

Question 112

How are genetics related to the biological approach?

Answer 112

• Heredity is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through genes
• Genes carry instructions for a particular characteristics
  
  • such as intelligence or tempermant
• How these characteristics develop depends on the interactions of the gene with other genes, and the influence of the environment
• evolution theory suggests that, through the process of natural selection, specific genes will be selected because the characteristics they produce are adaptive for the current environment
• ‘Survivors’ are more able to pass on their genes, meaning that these characteristics will thrive

Question 113

What’s the difference between a genotype and a phenotype?

Answer 113

• A persons genotype is their actual genetic makeup
  
  • e.g. the specific genes they have
• A persons phenotype is the way that those genes are expressed through physical, behavioural, and psychological characteristics
• e.g. hair colour, eye colour, temperament etc

Question 114

What research is there into the effects of genetics?

Answer 114

• Twin studies
  
  • twin and family studies allow researchers to investigate relative contributions of genetic and environmental influences
  • e.g. if monozygotic (identical) twins who share 100% of their genes, are more concordant in terms of Sz than dizygotic (fraternal) twins who share only 50% of their genes, this suggests that the greater the similarity is due to genetic factors
• For example: Twin studies provide research support for a genetic basis to schizophrenia
  
  • MZ twins are more concordant for SZ than DZ twins
  • Joseph 2004, in a meta-analysis calculated that teh pooled concordance rates for all SZ twin studies carried out prior to 2001
    
    • MZ twins = 40.4%
    • DZ twins = 7.4%
  • This therefore suggests that the risk of developing Sz is higher the closer the genetic relatedness to a schizophrenic

Question 115

What is concordance rate?

Answer 115

concordance rate = the percent of cases in which both members of a pair have a particular attribute.

Question 116

What are adoptive studies and what is an example of one?

Answer 116

• due to the difficulties of disentangling genetics from environment in twin/family studies, studies where individuals are raised apart are also used
• evaluation: supportive evidence
  
  • Tienari et al. (2004)
  • Reviewed 20,000 hospital records reviewed of women in Finish psychiatric hospitals
  • of these, a sample of 145 ‘adopted away from SZ’ offspring were found (high risk group) and compared to a sample of 158 adoptees without genetic risk (low risk)
  • of the 303 adoptees, 11 from the high risk group (8%) and 3 from the low risk group (2%) developed SZ
  • They developed that a genetic link to SZ had been decisively confirmed

Question 117

How is psychoanalysis seen as a pioneering approach to understanding human behaviour?

Answer 117

• A pioneering approach to understanding human behaviour
  
  • The development of psychoanalysis as an explanation of human behaviour represented a dramatic shift in psychological thinking
  • It suggested new methodical procedures for gathering evidence (case studies) and the development of the approach was based on observations of behaviour rather than relying on introspection. For theses observations, Freud and his followers were the first to demonstrate the potential of psychological, rather than biological, treatments for disorders such as depression and anxiety
  • This approach has led to successful treatments; for example, de Maat et al.’s (2009) large-scale review of psychotherapy studies concluded that psychoanalysis produced significant improvements in symptoms that were maintained in the years after treatment

Question 118

What scientific support is there for the psychoanalytic approach?

Answer 118

• Scientific support for the psychoanalytic approach
  
  • Critics of psychoanalysis often claim there is no scientific evidence for psychoanalysis and that its claims are not testable or falsifiable
  • However, many of the claims of psychoanalysis have been tested and many have been confirmed using scientific methodology. Fisher and Greenburg (1996) summarised 2,500 of these studies, concluding that experimental studies of psychoanalysis ‘ compare well with studies relevant to any other major area of psychology’
  • Fisher and Greenberg’s support for the existence of unconscious motivation in human behaviour and for the defence mechanisms of repression, denial and displacement adds scientific credibility to psychoanalytic explanations of human behaviour

Question 119

Is psychoanalysis a gender biased approach?

Answer 119

• psychoanalysis is a gender-biased approach
  
  • Freud’s views of women and female sexuality were less well developed than his views on male sexuality
  • despite the fact that his theories were focused on sexual development, Freud seemed content to remain ignorant of female sexuality and how it may differ from male sexuality. This led psychoanalysts such as Karen Horney, who broke away from Freudian theory, to criticise his work, particularly his views on women and their development
  • dismissing women and their sexuality in such a way is problematic, not only because Freud treated many female patients, but also because his theories are still so influential today

Question 120

Is psychoanalysis a culture-biased approach?

Answer 120

• Psychoanalysis is a culture-biased approach
  
  • Sue and Sue (2008) argues that psychoanalysis has little relevance for people from non-Western cultures
  • Psychoanalysts believe that mental disorders are the result of traumatic memories being ‘locked’ in the unconscious, and that feeing them through therapy gives the individual the chance to deal with them in the supportive therapeutic environment. However, they claim that many cultural groups do not value insight in the same way that Western cultures do. In China, for example, a person who is depressed or anxious avoids thoughts that cause distress rather than being willing to discuss them openly
  • This contrasts with the Western belief that open discussion and insight are always helpful in therapy

Question 121

Is psychoanalysis a comprehensive theory?

Answer 121

• Psychoanalysis: a comprehensive theory
  
  • one of the main strengths of psychoanalysis is the comprehensive nature of the theory
  • as well as its therapeutic applications, psychoanalysis can be used to explain many other aspects of human behaviour outside of the realm of psychology. For example, psychoanalysis has been used as a form of literary criticism. Works of literature such as Shakespeare’s play Hamlet have repressed messages hidden beneath the surface of the text - many aspects of Hamlet’s psyche are seen as a projection of Shakespeare’s own mind
  • As a result, we are able to interpret these works using psychoanalytic concepts, delving into the mind of the author or the fictional character and so enrich our understanding or their psychological state

Question 122

What are the ego defence mechanisms?

Answer 122

• repression - memories that are too painful or distressing are pushed deep into the unconscious mind
  
  • the ego censors the ids impulses and refuses them access into the conscious mind
• denial - refusal to accept reality
• displacement - redirecting repressed desires and impulses on to a relatively acceptable/ safe target

Question 123

What are some other defence mechanisms other than the ego defence mechanisms?

Answer 123

• intellectualisation - dealing with emotionally threatening experiences by removing emotion
• sublimation - transforming unacceptable aggressive and sexual desires into social acceptable behaviour
• reaction formation - expressing vires that are actually the opposite of true feelings
• regression - reverting back to earlier ‘ages’ and ways of behaving to escape from stressful events

Question 124

What are the strengths of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 124

• the psychodynamic approach was a pioneering approach
  
  • it was the first which argued that childhood development was important for explaining adult behaviour
  • this led to the development of new fields of psychology
    
    • e.g. developmental psychology
• there is also SOME (!) scientific support for aspects of the approach
  
  • the psychodynamic approach is not without its critics, who claim that there is no scientific evidence for it
  • however many claims have been scientifically tested and confirmed
  • Fisher and Greenberg (1996)
    
    • carried out a meta-analysis of 2500 studies testing different aspects of psychoanalysis
    • found support for the existence of unconscious motivations, as well as the defence mechanisms of repression, denial and displacement
    • psychoanalysis as a therapy for ‘neurones’ can often be as effective as treatments based on other approaches
    • overall they argued that the approach compared well to the scientific research of other major approaches
• In one nice example, the approach was effective in explaining a phobia when behaviourist therapy was not
  
  • Wolpe (1973) attempted (unsuccessfully) to use his method of systematic desensitisation to treat a woman’s fear of insects
    
    • it turned out that her (estranged) husband had an insect nickname
    • her ‘fear’ appeared to simply a displacement of her marital problems

Question 125

What are the limitations of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 125

• the psychodynamic approach shows androcentrism (a kind of gender bias)
  
  • Freuds views of women and female sexuality weren’t anywhere near as developed as his views on male sexuality
    
    • Freud did not even suggest the Electra Complex himself, a follower did
    • this leads to an ‘alpha bias’ where the difference between sexes is exaggerated
  • this ignorance of the differences between male and female sexuality led to many of his supporters distancing themselves from his ideas
  • for example, the psychoanalyst Karen Horney argued that young females develop “power envy” instead of “penis envy” toward the male
• The psychodynamic approach suggests that our behaviours are controlled through psychic determinism
  
  • i.e. controlled by unconscious impulses and desires that we have no control over
    
    • this denies us free will
  • this is a depressing view of human behaviour (one that e.g. the humanistic approach rejects)
  • it also conflicts with our general experience, where we do feel like we have free will
• a final limitation is that, despite the presence of some research support (as stated earlier), the psychodynamic approach is regarded as one of the least scientific approaches in psychology e.g.
  
  • control - Freud did not believe in the manipulation of an IV when studying human behaviour
  • falsifiability - without substantial evidence, it is nearly impossible to falsify the theories

Question 126

What is the Oedipus and Electra complex?

Answer 126

• Freud thought that the conflicts which occurred in the phallic stage were the most important for healthy adult personality development:
  
  • Oedipus complex - in the phallic sage, little boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their rival in love - their father (the Oedipus complex). Fearing that their father will castrate them, the boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father, taking on his gender role and moral values
  • Electra complex - girls of the same age experience penis envy: they desire their father - as the penis is the primary love object - and hate their mother (the Electra complex). Although Freud was less clear on the process in girls, they are thought to give up their desire for their desire for their father and replace this with a desire for a baby (identifying with their mother in the process)
• In both cases, the process of identification leads to the child taking on the roles and values of the same sex parent. Freud said that this internalised ‘voice’ of the same sex parent was what became the Superego

Question 127

what does identification and internalisation mean in context with the Oedipus and Electra complex?

Answer 127

• identification - boys adopt the values of their father. girls adopt the attitudes and values of their mother
• internalisation - the child takes on board the gender identity of the same sex parent - ‘second-hand’ gender

Question 128

What is psychosexual development?

Answer 128

• Freud believed that personality developed through a sequence of five stages
• they are referred to as psychosexual stages to emphasise that the most important influence in development is the need to express sexual energy, or libido
• we usually experience tension/ conflict due to the build up of this energy
  
  • pleasure is gained from its discharge
  • if a child experiences severe problems or excessive pleasure at any stage of development, this leads to fixation, where libido becomes unattached to that stage for years

Question 129

what is the first psychosexual stage?

Answer 129

oral 0-1 mouth sucking and biting bring pleasure. weaning (from bottle or breast) frustration - oral aggressive. hostile and sarcastic. also, smoking. overindulged - oral dependent. gullible

Question 130

what is the second psychosexual stage?

Answer 130

anal 1-3 anus expelling/ faeces bring pleasure. toilet training forms the EGO frustration - anal retentive. stingy, organised, neat. overindulged - anal expulsive. messy.

Question 131

what is the third psychosexual stage?

Answer 131

phallic 3-5 genitals genitals bring pleasure. Oedipus and Electra complex lead to SUPEREGO formation overindulged - phallic personality. vain and narcissistic

Question 132

what is the fourth psychosexual stage?

Answer 132

latency 6-12 none conflicts and issues from earlier stages are repressed, so most children are unable to remember much of their early years. same sex friendships become main focus. no evidence of fixations

Question 133

what is the fifth psychosexual stage?

Answer 133

genital puberty onwards genitals genitals bring renewed pleasure. this eventually leads to sexual intercourse and the beginnings of adult life fixation here is GOOD. genital personality type (well adjusted, mature, able to love and be loved)

Question 134

What are the psychosexual stages and what happens when the conflicts are unresolved?

Answer 134

• Freud argued that adult personality is set by experiences which occur during childhood. He saw the first 5 years as crucial in determining sexual orientation and other aspects of personality.
• Unresolved conflicts will result in the child becoming ‘fixated’ (stuck) in that stage, which will manifest as certain neuroses later in life

Question 135

What is the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 135

All human behaviours can be explained in terms of inner conflict of the mind. The conscious ‘moral’ Super Ego and the unconscious ‘desire driven’ ID, battle between how we should behave. Behaviour is shaped by early childhood experiences, anger and sexual desires

Question 136

What are the key principles of Freuds theory?

Answer 136

• key childhood experiences influence later personality and emotional development
• the conscious mind harbours repressed memories which motivate and influence conscious thoughts and behaviour
• unconscious drives called instincts motivate and regulate behaviour, (e.g. the libido, thanatos)
• we unconsciously use defence mechanisms to protect ourselves from painful, stressful or difficult experiences, (e.g. repression, regression, sublimation, denial, displacement)

Question 137

What are the three different types of mind?

Answer 137

• conscious mind - the part of the mind that we are aware of is only ‘the tip of the iceberg’
• preconscious mind - the thoughts and ideas bubbling just under the surface - appear in our dreams or in parapraxes
• unconscious mind - a vast store of drivers and instincts that influence our behaviour. Includes disturbing thoughts and repressed memories

Question 138

What 4 major techniques are used in psychoanalysis?

Answer 138

1. free association
2. study of parapraxes (Freudian slips)
3. dream analysis
4. transference

Question 139

What are the key assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 139

• the mind is like an iceberg - and the subconscious has a significant influence on behaviour
• personality consists of these three components which determine our behaviour
• early childhood experiences have an impact on later adult behaviour
• children pass through a series of psychosexual stages. If a child becomes fixated at any stage, it can affect their later behaviour

Question 140

How does the humanistic approach linked to the economic development?

Answer 140

• Links to economic development
  
  • research suggests that Maslow’s hierarchy may have relevance on a much larger stage than individual growth
  • Hagerty (1999) looked at the relationship between economic growth and measures of Maslow’s levels in 88 countries over a 34-year period. Countries in the early stages of economic development were characterised by lower level needs (e.g. physiological needs such as access to food and safety needs)
  • As would be predicted by Maslow’s model. it was only in the advanced stages of economic development that self-actualisation became important (e.g. using levels of educational enrolment as a measure of propels desires to better themselves)

Question 141

What research support is there for conditions of worth?

Answer 141

• Research support for conditions of worth
  
  • research with adolescents has shown evidence consistent with Rogers’ view
  • individuals who experience conditional positive regard are likely to display more ‘false self behaviour’ - doing things to meet others’ expectations even when they clash with their own values. Halter et al (1996) discovered that teenagers who feel that they have to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain their parents approval frequently end up not liking themselves
  • consistent with Rogers predictions, adolescents who created a ‘false self ’ pretending to be the kind of person his or her parents would love, were more likely to develop depression and a tendency to lose touch with their true self

Question 142

Why don’t humanistic research methods establish causality?

Answer 142

• Humanistic research methods do not establish causality
  
  • evaluating the humanistic approach scientifically is difficult because most of the evidence used to support this approach fails to establish a casual relationship between variables
  • Rogers in particular was an advocate of non-experimental research methods arguing that the requirements of experimental methods make it impossible to verify the results of counselling. Most psychologists would argue that, without experimental evidence, evaluation of a therapy, or the theory that underlies it becomes very difficult
  • Although some studies have shown personal growth as a result of receiving humanistic counselling, these do not show that the therapy caused the changes, a fundamental requirement of scientific psychology

Question 143

Why is the humanistic approach unrealistic?

Answer 143

• The humanistic approach is unrealistic
  
  • Humanistic psychology represents an overly idealised and unrealistic view of human nature
  • critics argue that people are not as inherently good and ‘growth oriented’ as humanistic theorists suggest, and the approach does not adequately recognise people’s capacity for pessimism and self-destructive behaviour. The view that peoples capacity for pessimism and self-destructive behaviour. The view that personality development is directed only by an innate potential for growth is seen as an oversimplification, as is the humanistic assumption that all problems arise from blocked self-actualisation
  • This suggests that encouraging people to focus on their own self-development rather than on situational forces may be neither realistic nor appropriate in modern society

Question 144

How do cultural differences effect the hierarchy of needs?

Answer 144

• Cultural differences in the hierarchy of needs
  
  • In a later development to his theory Maslow did acknowledge that, for some people, needs may appear in a different order or may even be absent altogether
  • This is borne out by cross-cultural evidence. For example, a study carried out in Chia (Nevis, 1983) found that belongingness needs were seen as more fundamental than physiological needs and that self-actualisation was defined more in terms of contributions to the community than in terms of individual development
  • consistent with this view, many studies have confirmed that Europeans and Americans focus more on personal identity in defining their self-concept whereas Chinese, Japanese and Koreans define self-concept more in terms of social relationships

Question 145

What are the strengths of the humanistic approach?

Answer 145

strengths:

• Maslow’s hierarchy has face validity
  
  • validity is the extent to which a test/ theory actually measures or describes what it is trying to measure
  • face validity is the extent to which a test is subjectively viewed as covering the concept it purports to measure
    
    • in other words… ‘does it look ok?’!
  • this is a weak test of validity, but can explain why some concepts become popular
  • e.g. may explain why the hierarchy is widely applied to business
• Ideas of the humanistic approach have had useful applications in modern therapy
  
  • many current therapies use ideas from Client Centred Therapy
    
    • e.g. having a warm and empathetic environment, active listening and displaying unconditional positive regard for the client
    • this is often an effective form of therapy for less serious psychological problems
    • BUT… it is less effective for more severe ones such as psychosis
• One strength of the humanistic approach is that it takes an optimistic view on human behaviour
  
  • giving humans free will, and arguing that they are innately positive and motivated to self-actualise
  • this contrasts with more the depressing, pessimistic theories of some other approaches
• HOWEVER, as a result the approach has been accused of a lack of realism
  
  • critics argue that people are not all inherently good and ‘growth-oriented’ as humanist theorists suggest
  • the approach ignores peoples capacity for pessimism and self destructive behaviour

Question 146

What are the limitations of the humanistic approach?

Answer 146

limitations:

• The humanistic approach is very unscientific
  
  • it does not believe in testing people or groups scientifically (Rogers rejected turning people into “lab rats”)
  • it takes a totally idiographic, rather than a nomothetic approach
  • Rogers argued taht the requirements of experimental methods make it impossible to verify the results of counselling
  • however, without experimental evidence, evaluating a therapy, or its underlying theory becomes very difficult
    
    • most of the evidence used to support this approach fails to establish causal relationship

Question 147

What is the self and what does it have to do with the humanistic approach?

Answer 147

• The self
  
  • Our self-concept refers to how we perceive ourselves as a person
  • Rogers (1951) - We have two basic needs:
    
    • positive regard from others
    • a feeling of self-worth (what we think about ourselves)
  • Feelings of self-worth develop in childhood and are formed as a result of a child’s interaction with their parents
    
    • further interactions with significant others also contribute to our self worth
  • Rogers believed that our feelings of self-worth are important in determining our psychological health

Question 148

What is congruence?

Answer 148

• Congruence
  
  • When there is a similarity between a person’s ideal self and how they perceive themselves in real life, the person is in a state of congruence
  • When there is a difference, the person experiences a state of incongruence
  • The closer our self image and ideal self are to each other, the greater our sense of self worth
  • however, it is very rare for a complete state of congruence to exist
    
    • most people experience some degree of incongruence

Question 149

What is meant by ‘conditions of worth’?

Answer 149

• conditions of worth
  
  • while people can assist in the achievement of self-actualisation, Rogers believed that they more often hinder it
  • the belief is based around the love/belonging need of Maslow’s hierarchy
    
    • the love can be unconditional (unconditional positive regard)
    • It is given when a person is accepted for who they are or what they do
    • or conditional - when the person does what other people tell them to do
  • when people experience conditional regard they develop conditions of worth
    
    • the conditions they perceive that significant others put on them in order to be accepted by others and see themselves in a positive manner

Question 150

What is the influence of the humanistic approach on counselling psychology?

Answer 150

• The influence on Counselling Psychology
  
  • Rogers (1959) claimed that a person’s problems were a direct result of their conditions of worth
  • He believed that, with counselling, people would be able to solve their own problems in constructive ways
  • Rogers‘ client centred therapy is an important form of modern day psychology
  • Rogers referred to those therapy as ‘clients’ rather than ‘patients’ as he saw the individual as the expert of their own condition
  • this, therapy is non directive
    
    • the client is encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions within a therapeutic atmospheres taht is warm, supportive and non judgemental
  • For Rogers, an effective therapist should provide the client with three things:
    
    • genuineness
    • empathy
    • unconditional positive regard
  • the aim of Rogers therapy is to increase the person’s feelings of self-worth, reduce levels of incongruence, and help the person become a more fully functional person

Question 151

What is the humanistic approach?

Answer 151

This approach is often named as ‘Positive Psychology’. It is concerned with topics that are meaningful to human being’s and emphasis the importance of the individuals striving towards personal growth and accomplishment. Individuals have complete free will over their thoughts and actions

Humanistic - refers to the belief that human beings are born with the desire to grow, create and to love, and have the power to direct their own lives

Question 152

How does the humanistic approach view free will?

Answer 152

• Free Will
  
  • All of the approaches considered so far are, at least to some degree, deterministic
    
    • they suggest that one cause will always have the same effect and that laws can be made about human behaviour (nomothetic)
  • Humanism places the emphasis of human behaviour on an individuals ability to feely choose their behaviour
  • each person is treated as an unique individual
  • while we are not completely free (we are bound by forces such as biological and societal influences) we are able to make significant personal choices within those constraints

Question 153

What is an idiographic approach - how does it link to the humanistic approach?

Answer 153

• An idiographic approach
  
  • all this makes us unique individuals, and so we should only be studied as such - an idiographic approach

Question 154

What is a holistic approach - how does it link to the humanistic approach?

Answer 154

• A holistic approach
  
  • it is inappropriate to use a reductionist, scientific approach to study human behaviour as it is dehumanising to treat them like lab rats
  • need for holistic view of the whole person

Question 155

What was Maslow’s Theory (1943)?

Answer 155

• Maslow’s Theory (1943) - a positive approach
  
  • unlike psychoanalysts, Maslow was not concerned with what went wrong with people, but rather he was interested in finding out what could go right with them
  • his theory emphasised the importance of personal growth and fulfilment
    
    • this opened the door for later movements in psychology, such as positive psychology and the understanding of happiness

Question 156

What is the hierarchy of needs?

Answer 156

• The Hierarchy of needs
  
  • Maslow did not include the visualisation of a pyramid in his original theory, although the hierarchy of needs is usually expressed that way
  • the most basic physiological needs are represented at the bottom of the pyramid, and the most advanced needs are at the top
  • each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up the hierarchy
  • according to Maslow, the more basic need, the more powerfully it is experienced and the harder it is to ignore

Question 157

What is self-actualisation?

Answer 157

• Self-Actualisation
  
  • according to Maslow, most people who attained this level share certain characteristics:
    
    • creativity
    • accepting of other people
    • accurate perception of the world around
  • the individual feels able to leave behind all doubts, fears and inhibitions

Question 158

What is a limitation of the hierarchy of needs?

Answer 158

• One limitation of the hierarchy is that it may be ethnocentric - it may ignore cultural differences
  
  • Nevis (1983)
    
    • studied the concept of Maslow’s hierarchy in China
    • he found that love/belonging needs were seen as much more fundamental than psychological needs
    • self actualisation also celebrates individual success, whereas other cultures define success more in terms of the group

Question 159

What is a limitation of self-actualisation?

Answer 159

self-actualisation was defined more in terms of contributions to the community than in terms of individual development

Question 160

Is psychology scientific?

Answer 160

• Is psychology scientific?
  
  • psychology is often referred to as the ‘science of behaviour’
  • psychologists have adopted the scientific method as the most appropriate way of studying human behaviour
  • however, because psychology lies at the intersection of many other different disciplines, such as biology, philosophy and sociology, the application of scientific method is not universal across the subject

Question 161

How scientific is Behaviourism and the SLT?

Answer 161

• Behaviourism and the SLT
  
  • Behaviourism’s commitment to the scientific method is highly positive
    
    • it focuses only on aspects of behaviour that can be measured and the research is easily replicable
  • SLT also demonstrates a positive commitment to the scientific method
    
    • the research is highly controlled
    • however, this does result in a reduction in validity

Question 162

How scientific is cognitive and Biological Approaches?

Answer 162

• Cognitive and Biological Approaches
  
  • cognitive psychology is mostly positive with regards to the scientific method, as most propositions can be easily tested
    
    • however, mental processes ae largely unobservable, making the application of scientific method very difficult
    • most conclusions are based on inferences as a result
  • biological psychology’s commitment to the scientific method is highly positive
    
    • the theories are easy to trust and replicate
    • the conclusions are based on very string empirical evidence

Question 163

How scientific is Psychodynamic and Humanistic Approaches?

Answer 163

• Psychodynamic and Humanistic Approaches
  
  • psychodynamic psychology’s approach to the scientific method is mostly negative
    
    • while some psychologists try to use empirical methods, the predominant method used is the highly subjective case study
  • humanistic psychology argues that the scientific method only applies to the natural sciences
    
    • It is not appropriate for studying the complexities of the human consciousness and experience
    • they also reject experimental methods as dehumanising - arguing that they treat us as lab rates rather than unique individuals

Question 164

What is nature vs nurture?

Answer 164

• Nature vs Nurture
  
  • Human behaviour is either the product of a person’s genes and biology (nature) or what they experience as a result of interacting with the environment (nurture)
  • It is rare that behaviour is entirely one or the other alone
  • More usually, the question of ‘nature and nurture’ lies in looking at the way they interact with each other

Question 165

Is Behaviourism and Social Learning Theory nature of nurture?

Answer 165

• Behaviourism and Social Learning Theory
  
  • Behaviourism falls on the side of Nurture - our behaviour is a consequence of our interactions with the environment and the consequences of our behaviour within that environment
  • SLT falls primarily with Nurture - people learn as a result of observing others
    
    • However, it is assumed that the capacity to learn from an observation of others has an adaptive value, making it more likely to be innate (nature)

Question 166

Is Cognitive and Biological Approaches nature or nurture?

Answer 166

• Cognitive and Biological Approaches
  
  • The cognitive approach assumes behaviour is the result of both nature and nurture - thought processes that control our behaviour may be a product of innate factors or our experiences
  • The biological approach is primarily based around nature - biological systems such as the CNS and the endocrine system are the product of innate factors

Question 167

Is Psychodynamic and Humanistic Approaches nature of nurture?

Answer 167

• Psychodynamic and Humanistic Approaches
  
  • The psychodynamic approach assumes behaviour is the result of both nature and nurture - unconscious drives and conflicts are considered an innate (nature) part of our personality
    
    • however, how we cope with these is mostly a product of our upbringing (nurture)
  • The humanistic approach also assumes behaviour is the result of both nature and nurture - our drive to self-actualise is considered an innate behaviour (nature), but our problems achieving this are a result of our experiences and upbringing (nurture)
    
    • e.g. conditional positive regard and conditions of worth

Question 168

What is determinism?

Answer 168

• What is determinism?
  
  • determinism refers to the specific causes of a behaviour
    
    • whether they are internal or external
    • whether they are within our control or not
  • the majority of approaches represent a determinist view
    
    • they see behaviour as being determined by forces outside of conscious control
  • free will is used to refer to the alternative end of the spectrum
    
    • behaviour is the result of self-determination

Question 169

Is Behaviourism and Social Learning Theory deterministic?

Answer 169

• Behaviourism and Social Learning Theory
  
  • while behaviourism and social learning focus on the learning of behaviour, we will consider them as separate approaches
  • behaviourism suggests that behaviour is determined by external forces in the environment
    
    • e.g. rewards, punishment and association
  • social learning theory suggests that behaviour is determined by observation and imitation of role models (vicarious reinforcement)
    
    • although we still have to make a conscious choice as to whether we imitate them

Question 170

Is cognitive and biological approach deterministic?

Answer 170

• Cognitive and Biological Approaches
  
  • The cognitive approach assumes that our behaviour is determined by our own thought processes
    
    • suggesting we have a degree of control over our behaviour
  • The biological approach suggests that our behaviour is determined by physiological (neurochemicals and hormones) and inherited (genes) factors
    
    • both of which are outside of our control

Question 171

Is psychodynamic and humanistic approach deterministic?

Answer 171

• Psychodynamic and Humanistic Approaches
  
  • The psychodynamic approach suggests that our behaviour is the result of unconscious factors
  • These are largely unknown to us, therefore beyond our conscious control
  • examples include the often referred to ‘Freudian slip’
• The humanistic approach emphasises the importance of free will on our behaviour
  
  • Therefore we are in full control of our actions