ApushChatgpt Flashcards
(442 cards)
1
Q
Bering Land Bridge
A
Land bridge that connected Asia and North America during the Ice Age
2
Q
Columbian Exchange
A
The exchange of plants
3
Q
Encomienda System
A
A Spanish labor system that forced Native Americans to work under brutal conditions in exchange for supposed protection and Christianization.
4
Q
Jamestown (1607)
A
First permanent English settlement in North America
5
Q
Powhatan Confederacy
A
Group of Native American tribes near Jamestown who had a complicated relationship with the English settlers.
6
Q
House of Burgesses (1619)
A
First representative legislative assembly in the American colonies
7
Q
Mayflower Compact (1620)
A
An agreement among Pilgrims to create a self-governing colony based on majority rule.
8
Q
Puritans
A
Religious reformers who wanted to “purify” the Church of England and established Massachusetts Bay Colony for religious freedom.
9
Q
John Winthrop
A
“City upon a hill” Puritan governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony
10
Q
Roger Williams
A
Founder of Rhode Island
11
Q
Anne Hutchinson
A
Challenged Puritan leadership in Massachusetts; was banished and helped found Rhode Island.
12
Q
Pequot War (1636–1638)
A
Conflict between New England colonists and the Pequot tribe over land and trade rights.
13
Q
King Philip’s War (1675–1678)
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Conflict between New England settlers and Native American tribes led by Metacom (King Philip)
14
Q
Navigation Acts
A
Series of English laws restricting colonial trade to benefit England’s mercantilist system.
15
Q
Salutary Neglect
A
Period when England loosely enforced trade laws
16
Q
Bacon’s Rebellion (1676)
A
Virginia rebellion of backcountry farmers led by Nathaniel Bacon; revealed tensions between frontier settlers and colonial elites.
17
Q
Middle Passage
A
The transatlantic journey that enslaved Africans endured between Africa and the Americas.
18
Q
Triangular Trade
A
Three-part trade system: raw materials to Europe
19
Q
First Great Awakening (1730s–1740s)
A
Religious revival movement emphasizing emotional spirituality; figures included Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield.
20
Q
Jonathan Edwards
A
Preacher during the First Great Awakening
21
Q
George Whitefield
A
Influential preacher who spread the Great Awakening through emotional sermons across the colonies.
22
Q
Zenger Trial (1735)
A
Case that established precedent for freedom of the press in the colonies.
23
Q
Albany Plan of Union (1754)
A
Benjamin Franklin’s unsuccessful proposal to unite the colonies for defense during the French and Indian War.
24
Q
French and Indian War (1754–1763)
A
North American conflict in a larger imperial war between Britain and France; led to British debt and colonial unrest.
25
Treaty of Paris (1763)
Ended the French and Indian War; Britain gained Canada and land east of the Mississippi.
26
Proclamation of 1763
British law forbidding colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains to avoid Native conflict.
27
Sugar Act (1764)
British law taxing sugar and molasses; aimed to raise revenue and stop smuggling.
28
Stamp Act (1765)
First direct tax on printed goods in the colonies; led to widespread protests.
29
Stamp Act Congress (1765)
Colonial meeting that issued a declaration against the Stamp Act; first unified colonial response to British policy.
30
Sons of Liberty
Radical group led by Samuel Adams that protested British taxes and policies using direct action.
31
Declaratory Act (1766)
Law asserting Parliament’s right to legislate for the colonies “in all cases whatsoever.”
32
Townshend Acts (1767)
Taxes on imported goods like glass and tea; sparked renewed boycotts and tension.
33
Boston Massacre (1770)
British soldiers killed five colonists during a protest; used as anti-British propaganda.
34
Tea Act (1773)
Law allowing British East India Company to sell tea directly to colonists; led to the Boston Tea Party.
35
Boston Tea Party (1773)
Protest in which colonists dumped tea into Boston Harbor in response to the Tea Act.
36
Intolerable Acts (1774)
British laws punishing Boston for the Tea Party; closed the port and restricted town meetings.
37
First Continental Congress (1774)
Colonial meeting to coordinate resistance to the Intolerable Acts; called for boycotts.
38
Lexington and Concord (1775)
First battles of the Revolutionary War; “shot heard ’round the world.”
39
Second Continental Congress (1775)
Managed the colonial war effort; eventually adopted the Declaration of Independence.
40
Olive Branch Petition (1775)
Final colonial attempt at reconciliation with Britain; rejected by King George III.
41
Thomas Paine / Common Sense (1776)
Pamphlet that argued for independence from Britain using plain language.
42
Declaration of Independence (1776)
Document declaring the colonies’ break from Britain; authored primarily by Thomas Jefferson.
43
Battle of Saratoga (1777)
Turning point of the Revolution; American victory convinced France to ally with the colonists.
44
Valley Forge (1777–78)
Winter camp where Washington’s army endured harsh conditions but became stronger under Baron von Steuben.
45
Battle of Yorktown (1781)
Final major battle of the Revolutionary War; British General Cornwallis surrendered to Washington.
46
Treaty of Paris (1783)
Ended the Revolutionary War; recognized American independence and granted land to the U.S.
47
Articles of Confederation
First U.S. government system; weak central government with no power to tax or regulate trade.
48
Northwest Ordinance (1787)
Law that set up a process for admitting new states and banned slavery in the Northwest Territory.
49
Shays’ Rebellion (1786)
Revolt by Massachusetts farmers against debt and taxes; showed need for a stronger central government.
50
Constitutional Convention (1787)
Meeting to revise the Articles of Confederation; resulted in the drafting of the U.S. Constitution.
51
Virginia Plan
Constitutional proposal for representation based on population; favored large states.
52
New Jersey Plan
Proposal for equal representation of states; favored small states.
53
Great Compromise
Combined Virginia and New Jersey Plans to create a bicameral legislature.
54
Three-Fifths Compromise
Compromise where enslaved people counted as 3/5 of a person for taxation and representation.
55
Federalism
System of government where power is shared between national and state governments.
56
Separation of Powers
Concept that government powers should be divided among legislative
57
Checks and Balances
System where each branch of government can limit the power of the others.
58
Federalists
Supporters of the Constitution and a strong central government (e.g.
59
Anti-Federalists
Opposed the Constitution
60
Federalist Papers
Essays by Hamilton
61
Bill of Rights
First 10 amendments to the Constitution; guaranteed individual liberties.
62
George Washington
First U.S. President; set precedents for the executive and warned against political parties and foreign alliances.
63
Hamilton’s Financial Plan
Included federal assumption of debt
64
Whiskey Rebellion (1794)
Revolt against Hamilton’s excise tax; Washington crushed it
65
Neutrality Proclamation (1793)
Washington’s policy to avoid involvement in European wars.
66
Jay’s Treaty (1794)
Agreement with Britain to resolve disputes; unpopular with many Americans.
67
Pinckney’s Treaty (1795)
Agreement with Spain giving U.S. access to the Mississippi River and New Orleans.
68
Farewell Address
Washington’s final message advising the U.S. to avoid entangling alliances and political factions.
69
John Adams
Federalist second president; faced challenges like the XYZ Affair and Alien & Sedition Acts.
70
XYZ Affair (1797)
French demand for bribes that angered Americans and led to the Quasi-War.
71
Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)
Federalist laws restricting immigration and speech critical of the government.
72
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions
Declared the Alien and Sedition Acts unconstitutional; supported states’ rights and nullification.
73
Revolution of 1800
Peaceful transfer of power from Federalists to Democratic-Republicans with Jefferson’s election.
74
Thomas Jefferson
Third president; emphasized agrarianism
75
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
Established judicial review
76
Louisiana Purchase (1803)
Jefferson’s purchase of French land doubling U.S. size and expanding westward.
77
Lewis and Clark Expedition
Explored the Louisiana Territory and mapped a route to the Pacific Ocean.
78
Embargo Act (1807)
Jefferson’s ban on foreign trade to avoid war; hurt American economy.
79
War Hawks
Young Democratic-Republicans who supported war with Britain to defend U.S. honor and expand territory.
80
James Madison
Fourth president; led the U.S. during the War of 1812.
81
Causes of War of 1812
Included British impressment of sailors
82
Battle of Tippecanoe (1811)
U.S. victory over Native resistance led by Tecumseh; increased tensions with Britain.
83
Treaty of Ghent (1814)
Ended the War of 1812; returned U.S.–British relations to pre-war status.
84
Hartford Convention (1814)
Federalist meeting opposing the War of 1812; seen as disloyal and hurt the party’s reputation.
85
Era of Good Feelings
Period of national unity under Monroe following the War of 1812; decline of partisan conflict.
86
James Monroe
Fifth president; issued the Monroe Doctrine and supported nationalism.
87
Monroe Doctrine (1823)
Declared the Western Hemisphere off-limits to European colonization.
88
American System
Henry Clay’s plan for economic growth: national bank
89
Missouri Compromise (1820)
Admitted Missouri as slave and Maine as free; banned slavery north of 36°30′ in Louisiana Territory.
90
Election of 1800
"Revolutionary" peaceful transfer of power from Federalists to Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson).
91
Judiciary Act of 1801
Created new federal judgeships; led to conflict over "Midnight Judges."
92
Midnight Judges
Federalist judges appointed by John Adams at the end of his presidency.
93
Judicial Review
Power of the Supreme Court to declare laws unconstitutional (established by Marbury v. Madison).
94
Chesapeake-Leopard Affair (1807)
British attack on U.S. ship that escalated tensions leading to the War of 1812.
95
Non-Intercourse Act (1809)
Replaced the Embargo Act; allowed trade with all nations except Britain and France.
96
Macon's Bill No. 2 (1810)
Reopened trade with Britain and France; promised embargo against the one that continued to violate U.S. neutrality.
97
Tecumseh
Shawnee leader who tried to unite Native tribes against U.S. expansion; allied with Britain in War of 1812.
98
Battle of New Orleans (1815)
Major U.S. victory by Andrew Jackson after the War of 1812 had officially ended.
99
Henry Clay
Prominent War Hawk and proponent of the American System; known as the "Great Compromiser."
100
Second Bank of the U.S.
Rechartered in 1816 to stabilize currency and credit; opposed by Jackson.
101
Tariff of 1816
First protective tariff in U.S. history
102
Panic of 1819
First major economic depression under the Constitution; caused distrust in banks.
103
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
Supreme Court case affirming federal power and national bank constitutionality.
104
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
Reinforced federal control of interstate commerce.
105
Tallmadge Amendment
Proposed gradual emancipation in Missouri; rejected and led to the Missouri Compromise.
106
Election of 1824
Contested election decided by the House; led to the "Corrupt Bargain."
107
Corrupt Bargain
Alleged deal between Adams and Clay to secure the presidency in 1824.
108
John Quincy Adams
6th president; known for internal improvements but was politically ineffective.
109
Democratic Party
Founded by Jacksonians opposing Adams; championed the "common man."
110
Andrew Jackson
7th president; symbol of the era of the "common man" and founder of the Democratic Party.
111
Spoils System
Jackson’s policy of rewarding political supporters with government jobs.
112
Tariff of Abominations (1828)
High tariff that angered the South; led to Nullification Crisis.
113
Nullification Crisis (1832)
South Carolina threatened secession over tariffs; resolved by Clay’s compromise.
114
John C. Calhoun
South Carolina senator who supported states' rights and nullification.
115
Force Bill (1833)
Gave Jackson power to use military force to enforce federal tariffs.
116
Indian Removal Act (1830)
Authorized relocation of Native tribes to lands west of the Mississippi.
117
Trail of Tears
Forced migration of Cherokee and other tribes; thousands died on the journey.
118
Worcester v. Georgia (1832)
Supreme Court ruled in favor of Cherokee sovereignty; ignored by Jackson.
119
Bank War
Jackson's campaign to destroy the Second Bank of the U.S.; led to economic instability.
120
Pet Banks
State banks where Jackson deposited federal money after vetoing the national bank.
121
Specie Circular (1836)
Required land to be purchased with gold or silver; contributed to Panic of 1837.
122
Panic of 1837
Economic depression caused by bank failures
123
Martin Van Buren
8th president; inherited economic crisis after Jackson’s presidency.
124
Log Cabin Campaign (1840)
Whig campaign that portrayed William Henry Harrison as a man of the people.
125
Whig Party
Political party formed in opposition to Jacksonian Democrats; supported the American System.
126
William Henry Harrison
9th president; died shortly after inauguration.
127
John Tyler
10th president; clashed with Whigs and vetoed many of their proposals.
128
Second Great Awakening (early 1800s)
Religious revival emphasizing salvation and social reform.
129
Charles Grandison Finney
Key figure of the Second Great Awakening; preached individual salvation.
130
Burned-Over District
Area in upstate New York with intense revivalism and reform movements.
131
Temperance Movement
Social movement to reduce or eliminate alcohol consumption.
132
Dorothea Dix
Advocated for the mentally ill and prison reform in the 19th century.
133
Horace Mann
Leader in public education reform; promoted compulsory schooling.
134
Cult of Domesticity
19th-century belief that women’s role was in the home as moral guardians.
135
Seneca Falls Convention (1848)
First women’s rights convention; issued Declaration of Sentiments.
136
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Women’s rights activist; helped organize Seneca Falls Convention.
137
Susan B. Anthony
Women’s rights reformer focused on suffrage and legal equality.
138
Transcendentalism
Philosophical movement emphasizing nature
139
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Transcendentalist who advocated individualism and self-reliance.
140
Henry David Thoreau
Transcendentalist who wrote "Civil Disobedience" and "Walden."
141
Utopian Communities
Ideal societies formed during the reform era (e.g.
142
Hudson River School
Group of American landscape painters celebrating nature and nationalism.
143
Nat Turner’s Rebellion (1831)
Slave uprising in Virginia; led to stricter slave laws in the South.
144
American Colonization Society
Promoted return of freed African Americans to Africa; founded Liberia.
145
William Lloyd Garrison
Abolitionist who published *The Liberator* and demanded immediate emancipation.
146
Frederick Douglass
Former slave and leading abolitionist who wrote a powerful autobiography.
147
Grimké Sisters
White Southern women who became prominent abolitionists and women’s rights advocates.
148
Sojourner Truth
Former enslaved woman who became a prominent abolitionist and women’s rights speaker.
149
Manifest Destiny
Belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across North America.
150
Texas Revolution (1835–36)
War for independence from Mexico; led to the creation of the Republic of Texas.
151
Battle of the Alamo
Famous battle in Texas Revolution where Texans were defeated by Mexican forces.
152
Annexation of Texas (1845)
U.S. annexation of independent Texas; led to tensions with Mexico.
153
James K. Polk
President who promoted Manifest Destiny and oversaw the Mexican-American War.
154
Oregon Trail
Route used by thousands of settlers moving west to Oregon Territory.
155
Oregon Treaty (1846)
Settled boundary dispute with Britain over Oregon Territory at the 49th parallel.
156
Mexican-American War (1846–48)
Conflict over Texas and land in the Southwest; led to large U.S. territorial gains.
157
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)
Ended the Mexican-American War; Mexico ceded large territory to the U.S.
158
Mexican Cession
Land acquired from Mexico including California
159
Wilmot Proviso
Failed proposal to ban slavery in territory gained from Mexico.
160
California Gold Rush (1849)
Mass migration to California after gold was discovered at Sutter’s Mill.
161
Free Soil Party
Political party that opposed expansion of slavery into western territories.
162
Popular Sovereignty
Policy allowing settlers to vote on slavery in a new territory.
163
Compromise of 1850
Package of laws: California free state
164
Fugitive Slave Act (1850)
Required Northerners to return escaped slaves; angered abolitionists.
165
Underground Railroad
Network of safe houses and routes that helped slaves escape to freedom.
166
Harriet Tubman
Former slave who led hundreds to freedom via the Underground Railroad.
167
Uncle Tom’s Cabin
Anti-slavery novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe that stirred Northern opposition to slavery.
168
Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)
Repealed the Missouri Compromise; allowed popular sovereignty in Kansas and Nebraska.
169
Bleeding Kansas
Violent conflict between pro- and anti-slavery settlers in Kansas Territory.
170
John Brown
Abolitionist who used violence to fight slavery; involved in Bleeding Kansas and Harper’s Ferry.
171
Republican Party
Founded in 1854 to oppose the expansion of slavery.
172
Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)
Supreme Court ruling that African Americans were not citizens and Congress couldn’t ban slavery in territories.
173
Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858)
Senate debates in Illinois over slavery and its expansion; boosted Lincoln’s profile.
174
Freeport Doctrine
Douglas’s argument that local territories could effectively exclude slavery despite Dred Scott decision.
175
Harpers Ferry Raid (1859)
John Brown’s failed attempt to start a slave revolt; intensified sectional tensions.
176
Abraham Lincoln
Republican who opposed expansion of slavery; elected president in 1860.
177
Election of 1860
Lincoln’s election prompted Southern secession due to fear of anti-slavery policies.
178
Secession
Withdrawal of Southern states from the Union after Lincoln’s election.
179
Confederate States of America
Gov’t formed by seceding Southern states; led by Jefferson Davis.
180
Fort Sumter (1861)
First battle of the Civil War; Confederate forces fired on Union fort in South Carolina.
181
Border States
Slave states that stayed in the Union: Missouri
182
Anaconda Plan
Union strategy to blockade the South and divide it by controlling the Mississippi River.
183
Battle of Bull Run (Manassas)
First major battle of the Civil War; showed it would be long and bloody.
184
George B. McClellan
Union general known for caution and reluctance to pursue Confederate forces.
185
Robert E. Lee
Confederate general who commanded the Army of Northern Virginia.
186
Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson
Confederate general known for holding firm at First Bull Run.
187
Battle of Antietam (1862)
Bloodiest single-day battle in U.S. history; led to Emancipation Proclamation.
188
Emancipation Proclamation (1863)
Issued by Lincoln; freed slaves in Confederate-held territory.
189
13th Amendment (1865)
Abolished slavery throughout the United States.
190
Copperheads
Northern Democrats who opposed the Civil War and wanted peace with the South.
191
Conscription Act (1863)
Draft law for Union army; led to protests and riots
192
New York Draft Riots (1863)
Violent protests against the draft; highlighted class and racial tensions.
193
Total War
Military strategy used by Sherman and others to destroy civilian and economic resources.
194
Ulysses S. Grant
Union general who won major battles and accepted Lee’s surrender.
195
William Tecumseh Sherman
Union general who waged “March to the Sea” and used total war tactics.
196
Battle of Gettysburg (1863)
Turning point battle in Pennsylvania; major Union victory.
197
Gettysburg Address (1863)
Lincoln’s speech honoring fallen soldiers and redefining the war's purpose.
198
Siege of Vicksburg (1863)
Union victory that gave control of the Mississippi River.
199
Appomattox Court House (1865)
Location of Lee’s surrender to Grant
200
Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address
Stressed reconciliation and healing after the war.
201
Assassination of Abraham Lincoln (1865)
Killed by John Wilkes Booth; disrupted Reconstruction plans.
202
Andrew Johnson
17th president; clashed with Congress during Reconstruction.
203
Presidential Reconstruction
Lenient plan by Lincoln and Johnson for Southern reintegration.
204
Radical Republicans
Group in Congress pushing for harsh Reconstruction and rights for freedmen.
205
Freedmen’s Bureau (1865)
Provided aid
206
Black Codes
Laws passed in the South to restrict rights of freed African Americans.
207
Civil Rights Act of 1866
Granted citizenship and equal protection; basis for 14th Amendment.
208
14th Amendment (1868)
Granted citizenship and equal protection under the law.
209
Reconstruction Acts of 1867
Divided South into military districts; required new constitutions and 14th Amendment ratification.
210
Tenure of Office Act (1867)
Restricted presidential power to remove officials; led to Johnson’s impeachment.
211
Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
Johnson was impeached but not removed; damaged presidency.
212
15th Amendment (1870)
Granted voting rights regardless of race
213
Carpetbaggers
Northerners who moved South after the war
214
Scalawags
Southern whites who supported Reconstruction and the Republican Party.
215
Sharecropping
System where freedmen worked land for a share of the crops; led to debt and poverty.
216
Tenant Farming
Farming system where farmers rented land and paid with crops or cash.
217
Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
Terrorist organization that used violence to suppress Black political participation.
218
Enforcement Acts (1870–71)
Laws passed to combat KKK violence and protect voting rights.
219
Civil Rights Act of 1875
Guaranteed equal access to public accommodations; later declared unconstitutional.
220
Hiram Revels
First African American U.S. Senator (Mississippi).
221
Blanche K. Bruce
Second African American U.S. Senator; served during Reconstruction.
222
Redeemers
White Democrats who "redeemed" the South by restoring conservative rule.
223
Panic of 1873
Economic depression that weakened support for Reconstruction.
224
Slaughterhouse Cases (1873)
Limited the scope of the 14th Amendment’s protections.
225
U.S. v. Cruikshank (1876)
Weakened federal power to protect Black citizens from private violence.
226
Compromise of 1877
Ended Reconstruction; Hayes became president in exchange for removing federal troops from the South.
227
Rutherford B. Hayes
19th president; ended Reconstruction with the Compromise of 1877.
228
Solid South
Post-Reconstruction South that voted solidly Democratic for decades.
229
Lost Cause Myth
Romanticized interpretation of the Confederacy and Civil War.
230
Jim Crow Laws
State and local laws enforcing racial segregation in the South.
231
Poll Taxes
Fees required to vote; used to suppress Black voters.
232
Literacy Tests
Reading and writing requirements used to prevent Black voting.
233
Grandfather Clauses
Allowed poor whites to vote while excluding Black citizens based on ancestry.
234
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
Supreme Court case upholding “separate but equal” segregation.
235
Booker T. Washington
Advocated vocational education and gradual Black progress (Atlanta Compromise).
236
W.E.B. Du Bois
Called for immediate civil rights and higher education for African Americans.
237
Niagara Movement
Early civil rights organization led by Du Bois; precursor to NAACP.
238
Tuskegee Institute
Founded by Booker T. Washington to provide vocational education for Black Americans.
239
New South
Post-Reconstruction Southern push for industrialization and economic diversification.
240
Exodusters
African Americans who migrated West to escape Southern racism.
241
Buffalo Soldiers
African American soldiers who served in the western frontier after the Civil War.
242
Homestead Act (1862)
Gave free land to settlers willing to farm and improve it for five years.
243
Morrill Land-Grant Acts (1862)
Gave federal land to states to fund agricultural colleges.
244
Pacific Railway Act (1862)
Funded construction of the transcontinental railroad.
245
Transcontinental Railroad (1869)
Linked East and West coasts; completed at Promontory Point
246
Union Pacific and Central Pacific
Two companies that built the transcontinental railroad from Omaha and Sacramento.
247
Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)
Banned immigration of Chinese laborers; first major immigration restriction.
248
Great Plains
Region transformed by railroads
249
Dawes Act (1887)
Broke up Native tribes and allotted land to individuals to encourage assimilation.
250
Indian Wars (1860s–1890s)
Series of conflicts between U.S. military and Native tribes resisting displacement.
251
Battle of Little Bighorn (1876)
Native victory led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse over Custer’s forces.
252
Chief Joseph
Nez Perce leader who resisted removal; famous for “I will fight no more forever” speech.
253
Wounded Knee Massacre (1890)
U.S. troops killed hundreds of Lakota Sioux
254
Ghost Dance
Spiritual revival movement among Native Americans; led to Wounded Knee.
255
Helen Hunt Jackson
"A Century of Dishonor" criticized U.S. treatment of Native Americans.
256
Reservation System
Government policy to confine Native tribes to designated lands.
257
Barbed Wire
Revolutionized fencing on the plains; ended the open range.
258
Open Range
Cattle grazing on unfenced land; ended with overgrazing and fencing.
259
Cowboys and Cattle Drives
Western cattle herders who moved herds to railheads in the 1800s.
260
Frontier Thesis
Frederick Jackson Turner’s idea that the frontier shaped American democracy and character.
261
Miners and Boomtowns
Communities that rapidly grew around gold/silver strikes
262
Comstock Lode (1859)
Major silver discovery in Nevada; attracted settlers and wealth.
263
Bonanza Farms
Large-scale farms in the West that used mechanized agriculture and labor forces.
264
Sod Houses
Homes made from prairie turf by settlers on the Great Plains.
265
Gilded Age
Period of rapid economic growth and stark social inequality (1870s–1900).
266
Industrialization
The growth of industries
267
Second Industrial Revolution
Technological advancements such as electricity
268
Bessemer Process
Method for producing cheap steel by blowing air through molten iron to remove impurities.
269
Railroad Expansion
The growth of the railroad network which was central to economic development.
270
Vertical Integration
Control of all aspects of a product’s production from raw materials to finished goods (used by Carnegie).
271
Horizontal Integration
Consolidation of many firms in the same industry to eliminate competition (used by Rockefeller).
272
Andrew Carnegie
Steel magnate who led the expansion of the steel industry and advocated for philanthropy.
273
John D. Rockefeller
Oil tycoon who controlled the Standard Oil Company and monopolized the oil industry.
274
Monopoly
Exclusive control over a commodity or service
275
Trust
Legal arrangement in which a small group of trustees manage the assets of a corporation or industry.
276
J.P. Morgan
Powerful banker who helped finance the growth of railroads
277
Robber Barons
Term used to describe wealthy industrialists who exploited workers and eliminated competition.
278
Captains of Industry
Industrial leaders who were also seen as philanthropists contributing to the public good.
279
Sherman Antitrust Act (1890)
Federal law aimed at preventing monopolies and promoting competition in business.
280
Social Darwinism
Theory that applied Charles Darwin’s natural selection to human society
281
Gospel of Wealth
Idea that wealthy individuals had a moral obligation to use their wealth for the benefit of society (Carnegie).
282
Laissez-Faire
Policy of minimal government interference in business and the economy.
283
Labor Unions
Organizations of workers formed to fight for better wages
284
Knights of Labor
First major national labor organization
285
American Federation of Labor (AFL)
National labor union focused on skilled workers and improving wages
286
Samuel Gompers
Founder of the AFL
287
Pullman Strike (1894)
Nationwide railroad strike that led to federal intervention and the use of military force.
288
Homestead Strike (1892)
Steelworker strike in Pennsylvania that turned violent and led to the use of National Guard troops.
289
Haymarket Square Riot (1886)
Labor protest in Chicago that turned violent
290
Urbanization
The rapid growth of cities due to industrialization and immigration.
291
New Immigration
Wave of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe
292
Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)
Federal law banning Chinese immigration to the U.S.
293
Settlement Houses
Community centers established in poor urban areas to provide services such as education and healthcare (e.g.
294
Jane Addams
Founder of Hull House
295
Tammany Hall
Corrupt political machine in New York City
296
Political Machines
Organizations that controlled political parties and were often associated with corruption and patronage.
297
Boss Tweed
Leader of Tammany Hall; notorious for his corruption and embezzlement of public funds.
298
Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883)
Reformed federal employment by establishing a merit-based system for government jobs.
299
Granger Movement
Farmer-led movement advocating for regulation of railroad rates and monopolies.
300
Populist Party (People's Party)
Political party that advocated for the interests of farmers and laborers
301
Omaha Platform (1892)
Populist Party platform calling for reforms such as direct election of senators and government ownership of railroads.
302
Free Silver Movement
Movement advocating for the coinage of silver to increase the money supply and aid farmers.
303
William Jennings Bryan
Democratic and Populist politician who advocated for the free coinage of silver in the 1896 election.
304
Cross of Gold Speech
William Jennings Bryan’s famous speech advocating for the free coinage of silver and criticizing the gold standard.
305
Pollution and Urban Squalor
Problems associated with rapid industrialization
306
Muckrakers
Journalists who exposed corruption
307
The Jungle
Upton Sinclair’s novel exposing the horrors of the meatpacking industry
308
Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)
Law that required accurate labeling and sanitary standards for food and drugs.
309
Meat Inspection Act (1906)
Law that mandated federal inspection of meat products to ensure sanitary conditions.
310
Ida B. Wells
Anti-lynching activist and journalist who advocated for racial justice.
311
Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)
Organization advocating for temperance and women’s rights
312
Alice Paul
Leader of the National Woman's Party and advocate for women’s suffrage through a constitutional amendment.
313
Susan B. Anthony
Women's suffrage leader and co-founder of the National Woman Suffrage Association.
314
National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)
Organization that worked for women’s suffrage at the state and national levels.
315
19th Amendment (1920)
Amendment granting women the right to vote.
316
Progressivism
Movement that sought to address social
317
Theodore Roosevelt
26th president known for his progressive reforms and trust-busting policies.
318
Square Deal
Theodore Roosevelt’s domestic program focused on consumer protection
319
Trust-busting
The practice of breaking up monopolies and regulating big business
320
Northern Securities Case (1904)
Supreme Court case that dissolved a railroad monopoly
321
Conservation Movement
Movement to preserve and protect natural resources; led by figures like John Muir and Theodore Roosevelt.
322
National Parks
Protected areas of natural beauty
323
Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)
Federal law regulating food safety and drug labeling; passed after public outcry from muckrakers.
324
Federal Reserve Act (1913)
Created the Federal Reserve System to regulate the banking system and stabilize the economy.
325
Sixteenth Amendment (1913)
Authorized Congress to levy an income tax.
326
Seventeenth Amendment (1913)
Established the direct election of U.S. Senators by the people.
327
Clayton Antitrust Act (1914)
Strengthened the Sherman Antitrust Act by banning specific business practices deemed anti-competitive.
328
Woodrow Wilson
28th president; led the nation through World War I and implemented progressive reforms.
329
New Freedom
Woodrow Wilson’s progressive platform advocating for small government
330
Underwood Tariff (1913)
Reduced tariffs and enacted the first graduated income tax under Wilson’s administration.
331
Federal Trade Commission (FTC)
Agency created under Wilson to investigate and prevent unfair business practices.
332
Progressive Era Amendments
The 16th
333
18th Amendment (1919)
Prohibited alcohol
334
World War I (1914–1918)
Global conflict involving the Allied Powers (including the U.S.) vs. Central Powers; U.S. entered in 1917.
335
Militarism
The policy of building up strong armed forces to prepare for war.
336
Alliance System
An arrangement where countries agree to defend each other in case of an attack (e.g.
337
Imperialism
Policy of extending a country’s power and influence through diplomacy or military force.
338
Nationalism
Strong devotion to one’s nation
339
The Lusitania (1915)
British passenger ship sunk by a German U-boat
340
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare
Policy used by Germany
341
Zimmermann Telegram (1917)
German proposal to Mexico to form an alliance against the U.S.; intercepted by British intelligence.
342
U.S. Neutrality
The U.S. initially remained neutral during WWI
343
Selective Service Act (1917)
Authorized a draft of young men for military service in World War I.
344
American Expeditionary Force (AEF)
The U.S. military force sent to Europe during World War I
345
John J. Pershing
U.S. general who commanded the AEF in World War I and led them to victory in Europe.
346
War Industries Board (WIB)
Government agency that coordinated the production and distribution of war materials during World War I.
347
Committee on Public Information (CPI)
U.S. government agency responsible for promoting the war effort and influencing public opinion.
348
Espionage Act (1917)
Made it a crime to interfere with the military draft or encourage disloyalty during World War I.
349
Sedition Act (1918)
Expanded the Espionage Act to prohibit speech or actions deemed disloyal or critical of the war effort.
350
The Great Migration
Movement of African Americans from the rural South to Northern cities for industrial jobs during WWI.
351
Fourteen Points
President Wilson’s proposed plan for postwar peace
352
League of Nations
International organization proposed by Wilson to promote peace and cooperation between countries.
353
Treaty of Versailles (1919)
Ended World War I; imposed harsh penalties on Germany and set the stage for World War II.
354
Red Scare (1919–1920)
Fear of communism and radical left-wing politics following the Russian Revolution and WWI.
355
Palmer Raids (1919–1920)
Series of government actions to arrest and deport suspected radicals and anarchists during the Red Scare.
356
18th Amendment (1919)
Prohibited the manufacture
357
Volstead Act (1919)
Defined and provided for the enforcement of the 18th Amendment
358
Woman Suffrage
The movement advocating for women’s right to vote
359
19th Amendment (1920)
Granted women the right to vote.
360
Flappers
Young women in the 1920s who rejected traditional norms
361
The Harlem Renaissance
Period in the 1920s where African American culture flourished in Harlem
362
Langston Hughes
Poet and writer associated with the Harlem Renaissance; focused on Black identity and racial pride.
363
Marcus Garvey
Leader of the Pan-African movement and founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA).
364
Jazz Age
Term used to describe the cultural boom of the 1920s
365
Prohibition
The nationwide ban on alcohol
366
Al Capone
Infamous gangster who profited from bootlegging during Prohibition.
367
Mass Media
The growth of radio
368
Sacco and Vanzetti Trial
1921 trial of two Italian immigrants accused of murder; highlighted anti-immigrant sentiment and political unrest.
369
Nativism
The belief in protecting the interests of native-born Americans against those of immigrants
370
Ku Klux Klan (1920s)
White supremacist group that saw a resurgence in the 1920s
371
Scopes Trial (1925)
Legal case that tested the teaching of evolution in public schools; highlighted the conflict between modernism and traditionalism.
372
Clarence Darrow
Defense attorney in the Scopes Trial
373
William Jennings Bryan
Prosecutor in the Scopes Trial
374
Great Depression (1929–1939)
Severe worldwide economic downturn that began with the stock market crash and lasted for over a decade.
375
Stock Market Crash (1929)
The sudden and catastrophic drop in stock prices that contributed to the Great Depression.
376
Herbert Hoover
31st president who faced the early years of the Great Depression; criticized for his response to the crisis.
377
Hoovervilles
Shantytowns built by homeless Americans during the Great Depression
378
Dust Bowl
Severe drought in the Great Plains that led to mass displacement of farming families and environmental destruction.
379
Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR)
32nd president who led the nation through the Great Depression and World War II with his New Deal programs.
380
New Deal
FDR’s series of economic programs and reforms to combat the Great Depression and provide relief
381
Banking Crisis (1933)
FDR declared a bank holiday to close failing banks and restore public confidence in the financial system.
382
Fireside Chats
Radio broadcasts by FDR in which he directly addressed the American public to explain his policies.
383
Social Security Act (1935)
Provided financial assistance to the elderly
384
National Industrial Recovery Act (1933)
Created to stimulate industrial recovery
385
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
New Deal program that provided jobs to young men in public works projects related to conservation.
386
Works Progress Administration (WPA)
New Deal agency that employed millions to carry out public works projects such as building roads and schools.
387
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)
Created to insure bank deposits and restore confidence in the banking system.
388
Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)
New Deal program that aimed to raise crop prices by paying farmers to reduce production.
389
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
New Deal program that built dams and power plants in the Tennessee Valley to control flooding and provide electricity.
390
Public Works Administration (PWA)
New Deal program that funded large public works projects like bridges
391
Wagner Act (1935)
Established the right of workers to join labor unions and engage in collective bargaining.
392
Fair Labor Standards Act (1938)
Established minimum wage
393
New Deal Coalition
Political coalition formed during FDR’s presidency
394
Court Packing Plan
FDR’s failed attempt to expand the Supreme Court to secure more favorable rulings for his New Deal programs.
395
Keynesian Economics
Theory advocating for increased government spending and lower taxes to stimulate economic demand during a recession.
396
Good Neighbor Policy
Policy of non-intervention and cooperation with Latin America
397
Isolationism
Foreign policy of avoiding alliances and international conflicts
398
Cold War (1947–1991)
Ideological conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union
399
Iron Curtain
Term coined by Winston Churchill to describe the division between communist Eastern Europe and capitalist Western Europe during the Cold War.
400
Containment
Policy aimed at preventing the spread of communism by providing political
401
Truman Doctrine (1947)
U.S. foreign policy aimed at containing the spread of communism by providing military and economic assistance to Greece and Turkey.
402
Marshall Plan (1948)
U.S. program that provided aid to Western European countries to help them rebuild after World War II and prevent the spread of communism.
403
Berlin Airlift (1948–1949)
U.S. and British operation to supply West Berlin with food and fuel after the Soviet Union blockaded the city.
404
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
Military alliance formed in 1949 between the U.S.
405
Warsaw Pact (1955)
Military alliance formed by the Soviet Union and its Eastern European satellite states in response to NATO.
406
Korean War (1950–1953)
Conflict between communist North Korea (supported by China and the Soviet Union) and capitalist South Korea (supported by the U.S. and UN)
407
McCarthyism
Period of intense anti-communist suspicion in the U.S. led by Senator Joseph McCarthy
408
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
Supreme Court decision declaring racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional
409
Civil Rights Movement (1950s–1960s)
Movement advocating for the end of racial discrimination and the extension of civil rights to African Americans.
410
Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956)
Protest against segregated bus seating in Montgomery
411
Martin Luther King Jr.
Leader of the Civil Rights Movement
412
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Landmark legislation that outlawed discrimination based on race
413
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Law that prohibited racial discrimination in voting
414
Freedom Summer (1964)
Campaign to register African American voters in Mississippi
415
The Great Society
Domestic programs launched by President Lyndon B. Johnson aimed at eliminating poverty and racial injustice
416
Vietnam War (1955–1975)
Conflict between communist North Vietnam (supported by China and the Soviet Union) and anti-communist South Vietnam (supported by the U.S.)
417
Tet Offensive (1968)
Surprise military campaign by North Vietnam during the Vietnam War
418
Kent State Shooting (1970)
National Guard troops opened fire on anti-Vietnam War protesters at Kent State University
419
Watergate Scandal (1972–1974)
Political scandal involving the Nixon administration’s attempt to cover up a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters
420
Roe v. Wade (1973)
Supreme Court decision that legalized abortion nationwide
421
Jimmy Carter
39th president known for his focus on human rights
422
Camp David Accords (1978)
Peace agreement between Egypt and Israel brokered by President Jimmy Carter
423
Iran Hostage Crisis (1979–1981)
Diplomatic crisis in which 52 American diplomats were held hostage by Iranian militants for 444 days after the U.S. embassy in Tehran was seized.
424
Reagan Revolution
Political and economic shift in the 1980s led by President Ronald Reagan
425
Ronald Reagan
40th president of the U.S. who promoted supply-side economics
426
Iran-Contra Affair (1985–1987)
Scandal involving the illegal sale of arms to Iran and the diversion of funds to Contra rebels in Nicaragua during the Reagan administration.
427
Cold War End (1991)
Collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War
428
Bill Clinton
42nd president
429
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Trade agreement between the U.S.
430
Impeachment of Bill Clinton (1998–1999)
Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives for perjury and obstruction of justice related to his affair with Monica Lewinsky but was acquitted by the Senate.
431
Globalization
The increasing interconnectedness of the world through trade
432
The Dot-com Bubble
The rapid rise and collapse of internet-based companies in the late 1990s
433
Y2K
The potential computer bug that threatened systems worldwide as the year 2000 approached
434
9/11 Attacks (2001)
Terrorist attacks orchestrated by al-Qaeda
435
War on Terror
Global campaign led by the U.S. to eliminate terrorist organizations
436
Patriot Act (2001)
Law passed in response to the 9/11 attacks
437
War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
U.S. military intervention in Afghanistan following 9/11 to dismantle al-Qaeda and remove the Taliban from power.
438
Iraq War (2003–2011)
U.S.-led invasion of Iraq to remove Saddam Hussein from power and eliminate weapons of mass destruction
439
Hurricane Katrina (2005)
Devastating hurricane that struck New Orleans
440
Barack Obama
44th president and first African American president
441
Affordable Care Act (2010)
Healthcare reform law aimed at expanding access to health insurance and reducing healthcare costs
442
Great Recession (2007–2009)
Severe global economic downturn triggered by the collapse of the housing market and financial institutions
