Argument Types

Question 1

Author improperly equates a percentage with a definite quantity, or when an author uses quantity information to make a judgment about the percentage represented by that quantity

Answer 1

Numbers and Percentages Errors

Question 2

Assumes that conditions will remain constant overtime, and that what was the case in the past continues in the present and will be the case in the future

Answer 2

Time Shift Errors

Question 3

Straw Man

Answer 3

The author attempts to attack an opponent’s position by ignoring the actual statements made by the opposing speaker and instead distorts and refashions the argument, making it weaker in the process

Question 4

Authors misuse information to such a degree that they fail to provide any information to support their conclusion or they provide information that is irrelevant to their conclusion

Answer 4

General Lack of Relevant Evidence for the Conclusion

Question 5

Occurs when an author makes conflicting statements

Answer 5

Internal Contradiction

Question 6

Assumes that only two courses of action are available when there may be others
-do not confuse a false dilemma with a situation where the author legitimately establishes that only two possibilities exist

Answer 6

False Dilemma

Question 7

Method of Reasoning

Answer 7

Ask you to describe, in abstract terms, the way in which the author made his or her argument
Ex.:”Which one of the following describes the technique of reasoning used above?

Question 8

Survey Errors

Answer 8

• The survey uses a biased sample
• The survey questions are improperly constructed
• Respondents to the survey give inaccurate responses

Question 9

Occurs when the author uses an analogy that is too dissimilar to the original situation to be applicable

Answer 9

False Analogy

Question 10

Ask you to identify the answer choice that cannot be true or is most weakened based on the information in the stimulus
Ex.: “If the statements above are true, which one of the following CANNOT be true?”

Answer 10

Cannot be True

Question 11

Internal Contradiction

Answer 11

Occurs when an author makes conflicting statements

Question 12

Error of Conditional Reasoning

Answer 12

Author mistakes a necessary condition for a sufficient condition, or mistakes a sufficient condition for a necessary condition

• Mistaken Negation
• Mistaken Reversal

Question 13

Cannot be True

Answer 13

Ask you to identify the answer choice that cannot be true or is most weakened based on the information in the stimulus
Ex.: “If the statements above are true, which one of the following CANNOT be true?”

Question 14

Parallel Reasoning

Answer 14

Ask you to identify the answer choice that contains reasoning most similar in structure to the reasoning presented in the stimulus
Ex.:”which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to the argument above?”

Question 15

• Lack of evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is false
• Lack of evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is true
• Some evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is false
• Some evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is true

Answer 15

Errors in the Use of Evidence

Question 16

Appeal to Emotion

Answer 16

Occurs when emotion or emotionally charged language is used in an attempt to persuade the reader

Question 17

Ask you to describe, in abstract terms, the error of reasoning committed by the author
Ex.:”The reasoning in the astronomer’s argument is flawed because this argument…”

Answer 17

Flaw in the Reasoning

Question 18

Require you to identify a point of contention between two speakers, and thus these questions appear almost exclusively with two-speaker stimuli
Ex.:”Larson and Manuela disagree about whether”

Answer 18

Point at Issue

Question 19

Error of Composition

Answer 19

An error of composition occurs when the author attributes a characteristic of part of the group or entity to the group or entity as a whole or to each member of the group

Question 20

Time Shift Errors

Answer 20

Assumes that conditions will remain constant overtime, and that what was the case in the past continues in the present and will be the case in the future

Question 21

Author mistakes a necessary condition for a sufficient condition, or mistakes a sufficient condition for a necessary condition

• Mistaken Negation
• Mistaken Reversal

Answer 21

Error of Conditional Reasoning

Question 22

Point at Issue

Answer 22

Require you to identify a point of contention between two speakers, and thus these questions appear almost exclusively with two-speaker stimuli
Ex.:”Larson and Manuela disagree about whether”

Question 23

Circular Reasoning

Answer 23

The premise supports the conclusion, but the conclusion equally supports the premise
- author assumes as true what is supposed to be proved

Question 24

Ask you to identify an assumption of the authors argument

Ex.:”Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument above?”

Answer 24

Assumption

Question 25

Takes a small number of instances and treats those instances as if they support a broad, sweeping conclusion

Answer 25

Exceptional Case/ Overgeneralization

Question 26

• Must be true questions ask you to identify the answer choice that is best proven by the information in the stimulus

Answer 26

Must be True/ Most Supported

Question 27

Ask you to select the answer choice that provides support for the author's argument or strengthen's it in some way Ex.: "Which one of the following, if true, most strengthen's the argument?"

Answer 27

Strengthen/ Support

Question 28

Uses the opinion of an authority in an attempt to persuade the reader

Answer 28

Appeal to Authority

Question 29

* The survey uses a biased sample * The survey questions are improperly constructed * Respondents to the survey give inaccurate responses

Answer 29

Survey Errors

Question 30

Must be True/ Most Supported

Answer 30

• Must be true questions ask you to identify the answer choice that is best proven by the information in the stimulus

Question 31

Evaluate the Argument

Answer 31

You must decide which answer choice will allow you to determine the logical validity of the argument Ex.:"The answer to which one of the following questions would contribute most to an evaluation of the argument?"

Question 32

Numbers and Percentages Errors

Answer 32

Author improperly equates a percentage with a definite quantity, or when an author uses quantity information to make a judgment about the percentage represented by that quantity

Question 33

Asks you to supply a piece of information that, when added to the premises, proves the conclusion Ex.:"Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion above to be properly drawn?"

Answer 33

Justify the Conclusion

Question 34

This flawed argument attacks the person (or source) instead of the argument they advance - Focusing on the motives of the source - Focusing on the actions of the source

Answer 34

Source Argument

Question 35

• Contains a discrepancy or seeming contradiction • Find the answer choice that best resolves the situation Ex.:"Which one of the following, if true, would most effectively resolve the apparent paradox above?"

Answer 35

Resolve the Paradox

Question 36

General Lack of Relevant Evidence for the Conclusion

Answer 36

Authors misuse information to such a degree that they fail to provide any information to support their conclusion or they provide information that is irrelevant to their conclusion

Question 37

False Dilemma

Answer 37

Assumes that only two courses of action are available when there may be others -do not confuse a false dilemma with a situation where the author legitimately establishes that only two possibilities exist

Question 38

An error of composition occurs when the author attributes a characteristic of part of the group or entity to the group or entity as a whole or to each member of the group

Answer 38

Error of Composition

Question 39

An error of division occurs when the author attributes a characteristic of the whole (or each member of the group) to a part of the group

Answer 39

Error of Division

Question 40

Ask you to attack or undermine the author's argument

Answer 40

Weaken

Question 41

Source Argument

Answer 41

This flawed argument attacks the person (or source) instead of the argument they advance - Focusing on the motives of the source - Focusing on the actions of the source

Question 42

Ask you to describe, in abstract terms, the way in which the author made his or her argument Ex.:"Which one of the following describes the technique of reasoning used above?

Answer 42

Method of Reasoning

Question 43

Mistaken Cause and Effect

Answer 43

* Assuming a causal relationship on the basis of the sequence of events * Assuming a causal relationship when only a correlation exists * Failure to consider the events may be reversed * Failure to consider an alternate cause for the effect, or an alternate cause for both the cause and the effect

Question 44

Assumption

Answer 44

Ask you to identify an assumption of the authors argument | Ex.:"Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument above?"

Question 45

Exceptional Case/ Overgeneralization

Answer 45

Takes a small number of instances and treats those instances as if they support a broad, sweeping conclusion

Question 46

Ask you to identify the answer choice that contains reasoning most similar in structure to the reasoning presented in the stimulus Ex.:"which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to the argument above?"

Answer 46

Parallel Reasoning

Question 47

Appeal to Authority

Answer 47

Uses the opinion of an authority in an attempt to persuade the reader

Question 48

* Asks you to find the primary conclusion made by the author | * Are a variant of must be true questions

Answer 48

Main Point

Question 49

Errors in the Use of Evidence

Answer 49

* Lack of evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is false * Lack of evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is true * Some evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is false * Some evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is true

Question 50

Author must use each term in a constant, coherent fashion; using a term in different ways is confusing and undermines the integrity of the argument

Answer 50

Uncertain use of a Term or Concept

Question 51

* Assuming a causal relationship on the basis of the sequence of events * Assuming a causal relationship when only a correlation exists * Failure to consider the events may be reversed * Failure to consider an alternate cause for the effect, or an alternate cause for both the cause and the effect

Answer 51

Mistaken Cause and Effect

Question 52

Justify the Conclusion

Answer 52

Asks you to supply a piece of information that, when added to the premises, proves the conclusion Ex.:"Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion above to be properly drawn?"

Question 53

Resolve the Paradox

Answer 53

• Contains a discrepancy or seeming contradiction • Find the answer choice that best resolves the situation Ex.:"Which one of the following, if true, would most effectively resolve the apparent paradox above?"

Question 54

You must decide which answer choice will allow you to determine the logical validity of the argument Ex.:"The answer to which one of the following questions would contribute most to an evaluation of the argument?"

Answer 54

Evaluate the Argument

Question 55

Main Point

Answer 55

* Asks you to find the primary conclusion made by the author | * Are a variant of must be true questions

Question 56

Weaken

Answer 56

Ask you to attack or undermine the author's argument

Question 57

* This error states that a position is true because the majority believe it to be true * An appeal to popular opinion does not present a logical reason for accepting a position, just an appeal based on numbers

Answer 57

Appeal to Popular Opinion/ Appeal to Numbers

Question 58

Appeal to Popular Opinion/ Appeal to Numbers

Answer 58

* This error states that a position is true because the majority believe it to be true * An appeal to popular opinion does not present a logical reason for accepting a position, just an appeal based on numbers

Question 59

False Analogy

Answer 59

Occurs when the author uses an analogy that is too dissimilar to the original situation to be applicable

Question 60

The author attempts to attack an opponent's position by ignoring the actual statements made by the opposing speaker and instead distorts and refashions the argument, making it weaker in the process

Answer 60

Straw Man

Question 61

Uncertain use of a Term or Concept

Answer 61

Author must use each term in a constant, coherent fashion; using a term in different ways is confusing and undermines the integrity of the argument

Question 62

Occurs when emotion or emotionally charged language is used in an attempt to persuade the reader

Answer 62

Appeal to Emotion

Question 63

The premise supports the conclusion, but the conclusion equally supports the premise - author assumes as true what is supposed to be proved

Answer 63

Circular Reasoning

Question 64

Error of Division

Answer 64

An error of division occurs when the author attributes a characteristic of the whole (or each member of the group) to a part of the group

Question 65

Strengthen/ Support

Answer 65

Ask you to select the answer choice that provides support for the author's argument or strengthen's it in some way Ex.: "Which one of the following, if true, most strengthen's the argument?"

Question 66

Flaw in the Reasoning

Answer 66

Ask you to describe, in abstract terms, the error of reasoning committed by the author Ex.:"The reasoning in the astronomer's argument is flawed because this argument..."