Arguments Flashcards

1
Q

If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?

A

Identify the entailment/ must be true

Task:
-Identify a guaranteed entailment that follows logically from the a combination of the provide facts

Try the Truth Test–> ask does the statement have to be true, based on the facts

Look for strong (all, must, ever, everyone) and weak language (some, many, sometimes, usually)

Look for conditional statements–> Diagram them, and do the logically equivalent… make sure the last term goes firsts. TIP: the logic can only process the direction of the arrow (L-R), not against.

Look for relationships: Does X connect to Y, which connects with Z? You can predict that X connects with Z.

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2
Q

Which of the following logically follows from the statement above?

A

Identify the entailment/ must be true

Task:
-Identify a guaranteed entailment that follows logically from the a combination of the provide facts

Try the Truth Test–> ask does the statement have to be true, based on the facts

Look for strong (all, must, ever, everyone) and weak language (some, many, sometimes, usually)

Look for conditional statements–> Diagram them, and do the logically equivalent… make sure the last term goes firsts. TIP: the logic can only process the direction of the arrow (L-R), not against.

Look for relationships: Does X connect to Y, which connects with Z? You can predict that X connects with Z.

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3
Q

Which of the following can be properly inferred from the statement above?

A

Identify the entailment/ must be true

Task:
-Identify a guaranteed entailment that follows logically from the a combination of the provide facts

Try the Truth Test–> ask does the statement have to be true, based on the facts

Look for strong (all, must, ever, everyone) and weak language (some, many, sometimes, usually)

Look for conditional statements–> Diagram them, and do the logically equivalent… make sure the last term goes firsts. TIP: the logic can only process the direction of the arrow (L-R), not against.

Look for relationships: Does X connect to Y, which connects with Z? You can predict that X connects with Z.

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4
Q

Which one of the following, if true, most supports the argument above?

A

Strengthen

  1. Identify the conclusion and support
  2. Identify the gap: is there a gap in scope between
    support and conclusion? does the topic shift?
  3. Identify any common patterns: If the conclusion is causal in nature (X cause Y), a common strengthener might be an affirmation that the study was appropriate and relevant
  4. test each choice by adding to the original support, it should improve

*No effect can be correct on EXCEPT questions
Strengthen Except: Either weekend of no effect
Weaken Except: either strengthen or no effect

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5
Q

Which one of the following, if true, most strengthen’s the ecologists reasoning?

A

Strengthen

  1. Identify the conclusion and support
  2. Identify the gap: is there a gap in scope between
    support and conclusion? does the topic shift?
  3. Identify any common patterns: If the conclusion is causal in nature (X cause Y), a common strengthener might be an affirmation that the study was appropriate and relevant
  4. Test each choice by adding to the original support, it should improve

*No effect can be correct on EXCEPT questions
Strengthen Except: Either weekend of no effect
Weaken Except: either strengthen or no effect

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6
Q

Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the argument?

A

Weakener
1. Identify the conclusion and support

  1. Identify the gap: is there a gap in scope between
    support and conclusion? does the topic shift?
  2. Identify any common patterns: If the conclusion is causal in nature (X cause Y), a common weaker might be to provide an alternative cause (actually, Z caused Y)
  3. Test each choice by adding to the original support, it should worsen the conclusion

*No effect can be correct on EXCEPT questions
Strengthen Except: Either weekend of no effect
Weaken Except: either strengthen or no effect

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7
Q

Which one of the following represents the strongest counter to Ana’s argument?

A

Weakener
1. Identify the conclusion and support

  1. Identify the gap: is there a gap in scope between
    support and conclusion? does the topic shift?
  2. Identify any common patterns: If the conclusion is causal in nature (X cause Y), a common weaker might be to provide an alternative cause (actually, Z caused Y)
  3. Test each choice by adding to the original support, it should worsen the conclusion

*No effect can be correct on EXCEPT questions
Strengthen Except: Either weekend of no effect
Weaken Except: either strengthen or no effect

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8
Q

Which one of the following, if true, most casts a doubt on the reasoning above?

A

Weakener
1. Identify the conclusion and support

  1. Identify the gap: is there a gap in scope between
    support and conclusion? does the topic shift?
  2. Identify any common patterns: If the conclusion is causal in nature (X cause Y), a common weaker might be to provide an alternative cause (actually, Z caused Y)
  3. Test each choice by adding to the original support, it should worsen the conclusion

*No effect can be correct on EXCEPT questions
Strengthen Except: Either weekend of no effect
Weaken Except: either strengthen or no effect

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9
Q

Which one of the following is most supported by the information above?

A

Strongly Supported Inferences

  1. Understand the passage
    • look for relationships: Does X connect with Y, which connects with Z?
    • diagram conditional statements
    • note strong language (All, must, any, ever)
    • note weak language (some, may, many, sometimes)
  2. test the choices
    • Ask “is it supported”?

Common wrong choices:

  • Too strong/extreme–> goes beyond the truth of the passage
  • Probably/might be true–> might be true but we can’t for 100% be certain from the info provided
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10
Q

Which one of the following can most reasonably be concluded on the basis of the information above?

A

Strongly Supported Inferences

  1. Understand the passage
    • look for relationships: Does X connect with Y, which connects with Z?
    • diagram conditional statements
    • note strong language (All, must, any, ever)
    • note weak language (some, may, many, sometimes)
  2. test the choices
    • Ask “is it supported”?

Common wrong choices:

  • Too strong/extreme–> goes beyond the truth of the passage
  • Probably/might be true–> might be true but we can’t for 100% be certain from the info provided
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11
Q

The statements above, if true, most strongly supports which one of the following?

A

Strongly Supported Inferences

  1. Understand the passage
    • look for relationships: Does X connect with Y, which connects with Z?
    • diagram conditional statements
    • note strong language (All, must, any, ever)
    • note weak language (some, may, many, sometimes)
  2. test the choices
    • Ask “is it supported”?

Common wrong choices:

  • Too strong/extreme–> goes beyond the truth of the passage
  • Probably/might be true–> might be true but we can’t for 100% be certain from the info provided
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12
Q

The dialogue provides most support for the claim that Sarah and Paul disagree over whether

A

Dispute

Identify the conclusion and support

  1. Test each choice
  2. Compare choices against the stimulus, not against each other
  3. Keep track of opinions (+) and (-)
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13
Q

On the basis of their statements, Winchell and Trent are committed to disagree over whether

A

Dispute

Identify the conclusion and support

  1. Test each choice
  2. Compare choices against the stimulus, not against each other
  3. Keep track of opinions (+) and (-)
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14
Q

The argument proceeds by

A

Identify the technique

  1. Make a prediction:
    - what is the arguer doing in the conclusion?
    refuting, supporting, predicting an event?
    -What kind of support is the arguer using?
    analogy, counterexample, appeal to authority, statistics, relying on scientific expert?
  2. test choices
    - compare each choice with the stimulus and ask yourself if every piece of that choice is illustrated in the passage. If the choice says that the arguer makes and generalization, asks “is there actually a generalization in the conclusion?”

*rethink the argument, replacing specific terms with general ones

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15
Q

Which of the following is a technique of reasoning used in the argument?

A

Identify the technique

  1. Make a prediction:
    - what is the arguer doing in the conclusion?
    refuting, supporting, predicting an event?
    -What kind of support is the arguer using?
    analogy, counterexample, appeal to authority, statistics, relying on scientific expert?
  2. test choices
    - compare each choice with the stimulus and ask yourself if every piece of that choice is illustrated in the passage. If the choice says that the arguer makes and generalization, asks “is there actually a generalization in the conclusion?”

*rethink the argument, replacing specific terms with general ones

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16
Q

In her argument, the executive’s reasoning does which one of the following?

A

Identify the technique

  1. Make a prediction:
    - what is the arguer doing in the conclusion?
    refuting, supporting, predicting an event?
    -What kind of support is the arguer using?
    analogy, counterexample, appeal to authority, statistics, relying on scientific expert?
  2. test choices
    - compare each choice with the stimulus and ask yourself if every piece of that choice is illustrated in the passage. If the choice says that the arguer makes and generalization, asks “is there actually a generalization in the conclusion?”

*rethink the argument, replacing specific terms with general ones

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17
Q

Speaker Z responds to speaker X’s argument by doing which of the following?

A

Identify the technique

  1. Make a prediction:
    - what is the arguer doing in the conclusion?
    refuting, supporting, predicting an event?
    -What kind of support is the arguer using?
    analogy, counterexample, appeal to authority, statistics, relying on scientific expert?
  2. test choices
    - compare each choice with the stimulus and ask yourself if every piece of that choice is illustrated in the passage. If the choice says that the arguer makes and generalization, asks “is there actually a generalization in the conclusion?”

*rethink the argument, replacing specific terms with general ones

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18
Q

The claim that XXX plays which one of the following roles in the argument?

A

Identify the Role

  1. Mark the statement in the question before reading
  2. Identify the conclusion and support
  3. Categorize the statement in the question
    - What is the claim doing? how does it relate to the other statements? Is it a premise, conclusion, to both (sub-conclusion)
  4. Match prediction to a choice
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19
Q

Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the claim that XXX?

A

Identify the Role

  1. Mark the statement in the question before reading
  2. Identify the conclusion and support
  3. Categorize the statement in the question
    - What is the claim doing? how does it relate to the other statements? Is it a premise, conclusion, to both (sub-conclusion)
  4. Match prediction to a choice
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20
Q

The statement that the school system needs reform figures in the candidates argument in which one of the following ways?

A

Identify the Role

  1. Mark the statement in the question before reading
  2. Identify the conclusion and support
  3. Categorize the statement in the question
    - What is the claim doing? how does it relate to the other statements? Is it a premise, conclusion, to both (sub-conclusion)
  4. Match prediction to a choice
21
Q

Which one of the following judgements conforms most closely to the principle cited by the columnist?

A

Identify the Principle:

Find a situation that conforms to a principle: The choices are all arguments or situation, and the principle is in the passage.

  1. Restate the situation
    - rephrase in simple but accurate forms
  2. Match prediction
    - If no prediction, evaluate each choice by asking “Does every part of the choice match something that’s happening in the passage or does any part of this choice stray from the passage?”
22
Q

Which one of the following provides the best illustration of the principle above?

A

Identify the Principle:

Find a situation that conforms to a principle: The choices are all arguments or situation, and the principle is in the passage.

  1. Restate the situation
    - rephrase in simple but accurate forms
  2. Match prediction
    - If no prediction, evaluate each choice by asking “Does every part of the choice match something that’s happening in the passage or does any part of this choice stray from the passage?”
23
Q

Which one of the following generalizations is most clearly illustrated by the passage?

A

Identify the Principle:

The passage is an argument or a situation, and the principle is in the choices.

  1. Restate the argument
    - either given as an argument (with a conclusion and evidence) or a situation
    - - rephrase in simple but accurate forms if its a situation
  2. Match prediction
    - If no prediction, evaluate each choice by asking “Does every part of the choice match something that’s happening in the passage or does any part of this choice stray from the passage?”
24
Q

Which one of the following, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the editorial?

A

Identify the Principle:
The passage is and argument or a situation and the principle is in the choices

  1. Restate the argument
    - either given as an argument (with a conclusion and evidence) or a situation
    - - rephrase in simple but accurate forms if its a situation
  2. Match prediction
    - If no prediction, evaluate each choice by asking “Does every part of the choice match something that’s happening in the passage or does any part of this choice stray from the passage?”
25
Q

The situation as Madden describes it best illustrates which one of the following propositions?

A

Identify the Principle:
The passage is and argument or a situation and the principle is in the choices

  1. Restate the argument
    - either given as an argument (with a conclusion and evidence) or a situation
    - - rephrase in simple but accurate forms if its a situation
  2. Match prediction
    - If no prediction, evaluate each choice by asking “Does every part of the choice match something that’s happening in the passage or does any part of this choice stray from the passage?”
26
Q

The pattern of reasoning in which of the following arguments is most similar to that argument above?

A

Match Structure

  1. Identify conclusion and support
  2. Consider diagraming the passage structure
  3. characterize the conclusion
    - is it a definite prediction? is it an indefinite recommendation?
  4. Characterize the argument in general terms
  5. Eliminate as many choices as possible
    - eliminate conclusions that don’t match
27
Q

Which of the following is most similar in tis reasoning to the argument above?

A

Match Structure

  1. Identify conclusion and support
  2. Consider diagraming the passage structure
  3. characterize the conclusion
    - is it a definite prediction? is it an indefinite recommendation?
  4. Characterize the argument in general terms
  5. Eliminate as many choices as possible
    - eliminate conclusions that don’t match
28
Q

The principle underlying the argument above is most similar to the principle underlying which one of the following?

A

Match the Principle

  1. Identify the principle that governs the passage
    - Ask what the arguer values, why do they recommend or predict or compare what they do?
  2. Examine each choice in turn
    - eliminate the choices that stray significantly from the principle identified

EX: Absence makes the heart grow stronger

29
Q

Which one of the following most closely conforms to the principle illustrated by the argument above?

A

Match the Principle

  1. Identify the principle that governs the passage
    - Ask what the arguer values, why do they recommend or predict or compare what they do?
  2. Examine each choice in turn
    - eliminate the choices that stray significantly from the principle identified

EX: Absence makes the heart grow stronger

30
Q

Each of the following illustrates the principle that the passage illustrates EXCEPT:

A

Match the Principle

  1. Identify the principle that governs the passage
    - Ask what the arguer values, why do they recommend or predict or compare what they do?
  2. Examine each choice in turn
    - eliminate the choices that stray significantly from the principle identified

EX: Absence makes the heart grow stronger

31
Q

The reasoning in the argument is flawed because the argument

A

Identify the Flaw

Assume the argument is defective in some way, and the answer will be a description of something thats wrong with the argument.

  1. Identify the conclusion and premises

Do a quick check for common fallacies:

  • mistakenly assuming causation when two events are only correlated? (Cause/correlation)
  • is the arguer jumping to conclusions about a larger group of people than the ones being discussed in the support?
  • Is the arguer attacking someone’s opinion just because that persons character is questionable?
  • does the arguer discuss one topic in the support and then draw a conclusion about a different topic?
  1. Describe the disconnect in own words
    - between conclusion and premise
    -what might you rebut?
    Tip: Look for bonus language “ The argument fails to rule out he possibility that”…

“Failed to” or “overlooked” Q’s
- to test whether the choice is correct, analyze the “something” that is cited. Would the argument be sound I the arguer had addressed it? if yes, then you have the answer. If no, then its wrong.

32
Q

The argument commits which one of the following errors of reasoning?

A

Identify the Flaw

Assume the argument is defective in some way, and the answer will be a description of something thats wrong with the argument.

  1. Identify the conclusion and premises

Do a quick check for common fallacies:

  • mistakenly assuming causation when two events are only correlated?
  • is the arguer jumping to conclusions about a larger group of people than the ones being discussed in the support?
  • Is the arguer attacking someone’s opinion just because that persons character is questionable?
  • does the arguer discuss one topic in the support and then draw a conclusion about a different topic?
  1. Describe the disconnect in own words
    - between conclusion and premise
    -what might you rebut?
    Tip: Look for bonus language “ The argument fails to rule out he possibility that”…

“Failed to” or “overlooked” Q’s
- to test whether the choice is correct, analyze the “something” that is cited. Would the argument be sound I the arguer had addressed it? if yes, then you have the answer. If no, then its wrong.

33
Q

The argument’s reasoning is questionable because the argument fails to rule out the possibility that?

A

Identify the Flaw

Assume the argument is defective in some way, and the answer will be a description of something thats wrong with the argument.

  1. Identify the conclusion and premises

Do a quick check for common fallacies:

  • mistakenly assuming causation when two events are only correlated?
  • is the arguer jumping to conclusions about a larger group of people than the ones being discussed in the support?
  • Is the arguer attacking someone’s opinion just because that persons character is questionable?
  • does the arguer discuss one topic in the support and then draw a conclusion about a different topic?
  1. Describe the disconnect in own words
    - between conclusion and premise
    -what might you rebut?
    Tip: Look for bonus language “ The argument fails to rule out he possibility that”…

“Failed to” or “overlooked” Q’s
- to test whether the choice is correct, analyze the “something” that is cited. Would the argument be sound I the arguer had addressed it? if yes, then you have the answer. If no, then its wrong.

34
Q

The reasoning above is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that?

A

Identify the Flaw

Assume the argument is defective in some way, and the answer will be a description of something thats wrong with the argument.

  1. Identify the conclusion and premises

Do a quick check for common fallacies:

  • mistakenly assuming causation when two events are only correlated?
  • is the arguer jumping to conclusions about a larger group of people than the ones being discussed in the support?
  • Is the arguer attacking someone’s opinion just because that persons character is questionable?
  • does the arguer discuss one topic in the support and then draw a conclusion about a different topic?
  1. Describe the disconnect in own words
    - between conclusion and premise
    -what might you rebut?
    Tip: Look for bonus language “ The argument fails to rule out he possibility that”…

“Failed to” or “overlooked” Q’s
- to test whether the choice is correct, analyze the “something” that is cited. Would the argument be sound I the arguer had addressed it? if yes, then you have the answer. If no, then its wrong.

35
Q

Which of the following arguments is most similar in its flawed reasoning to the argument above?

A

Match a Flaw

focus on flaws, don’t get distracted by the content

  1. Find the premise and conclusion
  2. Look for common fallacies
36
Q

The pattern of questionable reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which of the following?

A

Match a Flaw

focus on flaws, don’t get distracted by the content

  1. Find the premise and conclusion
  2. Look for common fallacies
37
Q

Which one of the following arguments exhibits a flawed pattern of reasoning most similar to that exhibited by the argument above?

A

Match a Flaw

focus on flaws, don’t get distracted by the content

  1. Find the premise and conclusion
  2. Look for common fallacies
38
Q

The argument relies on assuming which of the following?

A

Necessary Assumption

  1. Find conclusion and premise
  2. Identify the gap
  3. Negating- “It is not the case that….”
    - if the argument falls apart when you do so, then that is the answer
39
Q

The argument depends on the assumption that

A

Necessary Assumption

  1. Find conclusion and premise
  2. Identify the gap
  3. Negating- “It is not the case that….”
    - if the argument falls apart when you do so, then that is the answer
40
Q

Which of the following is an assumption required by the argument?

A

Necessary Assumption

  1. Find conclusion and premise
  2. Identify the gap
  3. Negating- “It is not the case that….”
    - if the argument falls apart when you do so, then that is the answer
41
Q

Which of the following, if assumed, enables the conclusion of the argument to be properly inferred?

A

Sufficient Assumption

Assumption that, if added to the argument, would make it logically valid. It bridges the gap between the conclusion and support

  1. Identify conclusion and premise
  2. Identify the gaps in the conclusion
  3. Diagram conditional statements
  4. Eliminate common error answers
    - not enough: do help but do not guarantee the conclusion from support
    - necessary assumption
    - not relevant: outside the scope
    - backwards: “Because [passage’s conclusion], therefore [passage’s evidence].” Example: My fish is swimming, so my fish must be alive. A backwards choice would say something like, “All beings that are alive must be swimming” instead of, “All beings that are swimming must be alive.”
42
Q

The conclusion follows logically from the premise if which one of the following is assumed?

A

Sufficient Assumption

Assumption that, if added to the argument, would make it logically valid. It bridges the gap between the conclusion and support

  1. Identify conclusion and premise
  2. Identify the gaps in the conclusion
  3. Diagram conditional statements
  4. Eliminate common error answers
    - not enough: do help but do not guarantee the conclusion from support
    - necessary assumption
    - not relevant: outside the scope
    - backwards: “Because [passage’s conclusion], therefore [passage’s evidence].” Example: My fish is swimming, so my fish must be alive. A backwards choice would say something like, “All beings that are alive must be swimming” instead of, “All beings that are swimming must be alive.”
43
Q

Which one of the following would be most helpful to know in order to evaluate Dave’s theory?

A

Helpful to know

  1. Identify the conclusion and support
  2. Look for gaps: Is there specific info you wish you had? so that you can either agree or disagree with the arguer
  3. Look for common patterns
    - if the conclusion is causal, consider alternative theories or additional support
  4. Test the choice by turning them into a question (yes/No)
    would a “yes” answer strengthen the argument and a “no” answer weaken the argument? if so, you have the answer
44
Q

It would be most helpful to know which of the following in evaluating the politicians argument?

A

Helpful to know

  1. Identify the conclusion and support
  2. Look for gaps: Is there specific info you wish you had? so that you can either agree or disagree with the arguer
  3. Look for common patterns
    - if the conclusion is causal, consider alternative theories or additional support
  4. Test the choice by turning them into a question (yes/No)
    would a “yes” answer strengthen the argument and a “no” answer weaken the argument? if so, you have the answer
45
Q

Information above which one of the following would be LEAST useful in evaluating the argument?

A

Helpful to know

LEAST: Question is essentially an “EXCEPT” question. Rephrased as:
Each of the following would be useful in evaluating the argument EXCEPT:

  • so each of the wrong choices will be useful, and the answer will not help to evaluate the argument at all
    1. Identify the conclusion and support
    2. Look for gaps: Is there specific info you wish you had? so that you can either agree or disagree with the arguer
  1. Look for common patterns
    - if the conclusion is causal, consider alternative theories or additional support
  2. Test the choice by turning them into a question (yes/No)
    would a “yes” answer strengthen the argument and a “no” answer weaken the argument? if so, you have the answer
46
Q

Which one of the following, if true, would most help to explain how XXX could have happened?

A

Explain/Resolve

Stimulus may be puzzling, therefore, the answer will shed light on the situation or provide a logical explanation of how the situation could exist

  1. identify the situation
  2. Look for key contrast words (“This is surprising”)
  3. Paraphrase the situation as a question
    “How could the population have grown if fewer people were having children at the time?”
  4. Test each choice against the question you have formulated… Add info to the stimulus and asses the impact. If it sheds light, then that is the answer.
47
Q

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the info above?

A

Explain/Resolve

Stimulus may be puzzling, therefore, the answer will shed light on the situation or provide a logical explanation of how the situation could exist

  1. identify the situation
  2. Look for key contrast words (“This is surprising”)
  3. Paraphrase the situation as a question
    “How could the population have grown if fewer people were having children at the time?”
  4. Test each choice against the question you have formulated… Add info to the stimulus and asses the impact. If it sheds light, then that is the answer.
48
Q

Which one of the following, if true, most helps to account for the failure described above?

A

Explain/Resolve

Stimulus may be puzzling, therefore, the answer will shed light on the situation or provide a logical explanation of how the situation could exist

  1. identify the situation
  2. Look for key contrast words (“This is surprising”)
  3. Paraphrase the situation as a question
    “How could the population have grown if fewer people were having children at the time?”
  4. Test each choice against the question you have formulated… Add info to the stimulus and asses the impact. If it sheds light, then that is the answer.
49
Q

Each of the following, if true, contributes to a resolution of the apparent discrepancy described above EXCEPT:

A

Explain/Resolve: HIGHLIGHT EXCEPT!!

Except: Answer will proceed info that doesn’t help the situation or the passage makes sense… the four wrong answers will help resolve the discrepancy.

So, find the discrepancy and form a question around it. “Why are there more deer with increased deer threats”

Stimulus may be puzzling, therefore, the answer will shed light on the situation or provide a logical explanation of how the situation could exist

  1. identify the situation
  2. Look for key contrast words (“This is surprising”)
  3. Paraphrase the situation as a question
    “How could the population have grown if fewer people were having children at the time?”
  4. Test each choice against the question you have formulated… Add info to the stimulus and asses the impact. If it sheds light, then that is the answer.