AS. Doughton- 3. The impact of revolution in Russia. Flashcards
(155 cards)
1
Q
Background on Russia
A
2
Q
Tsar Nicholas II - character
A
“What is going to happen to me, to all Russia? I am not ready to be the Tsar. I never wanted to become one. I know nothing of the business of ruling. I
have no idea of even how to talk to ministers.”
-Nicholas said this the day after his father died in October 1894.
-“The daily work of a ruler he found terribly
boring. He could not stand listening long or
seriously to ministers’ reports, or reading them.”
-Kerensky, Russian politician PM in 1917
3
Q
Keyword
A
Autocracy - A system of government by one person with absolute power.
4
Q
Tsarist Russia (Background)
A
About 125 million people lived in Tsar Nicholas’s empire. Less than half of the people who lived in the Russian Empire were Russians.
The many peoples of the Russian Empire were not spread evenly throughout the country. Most
lived on the 5 per cent of the land that was good for farming.
5
Q
The Government of Russia - The autocracy
A
6
Q
Tsar’s power
A
Tsar Nicholas II, the Emperor of Russia, was an autocrat- a monarch who does not have to
share power. Nicholas could make new laws, increase taxes, do exactly what he liked, without
consulting anyone. There was no parliament to limit his power, and he could sack any minister
or adviser who disagreed with him.
7
Q
How Russia was governed
A
In practice Nicholas could not govern 125 million Russians all by himself. To run the affairs of his vast empire the Tsar employed many thousands of civil servants. They were organised into fourteen ranks. At the top were those ministers in charge of government departments. At the bottom were minor officials, such as post office clerks and customs inspectors. The Tsar’s civil service collected taxes from the Russian people and made sure that his decisions were carried out.
8
Q
The okhrana
A
The Tsar did not allow people to question his authority or challenge his power. To make sure
that nobody opposed him, Nicholas had a secret police force, the Okhrana. The Okhrana censored all books and newspapers. Its agents spied on political groups and arrested people who criticised the government. Political prisoners were tried by special courts without juries, and usually ended up in exile.
9
Q
The church in Russia
A
The church in Russia also helped to maintain the authority of the Tsar. The Russian Orthodox Church taught people to respect the autocracy and to be loyal to the Tsar. The head of the church was a government minister. Bishops took their orders from him and priests took their orders from the bishops. In this way the government had control over the minds and souls of many Russian churchgoers.
9
Q
The church in Russia
A
The church in Russia also helped to maintain the authority of the Tsar. The Russian Orthodox Church taught people to respect the autocracy and to be loyal to the Tsar. The head of the church was a government minister. Bishops took their orders from him and priests took their orders from the bishops. In this way the government had control over the minds and souls of many Russian churchgoers.
10
Q
Russian society
A
11
Q
Peasants
A
In 1900, four out of every five citizens of the Russian Empire were peasants – country people
who made their living by farming. Until 1861 the peasants had been serfs, slaves of their
landlords with no rights, no freedom and no land of their own.
12
Q
Conditions for peasants
A
Nearly half of all new-born children died before the age of five, while the average life expectancy of those who did reach the age of five was only fifty years. Diseases and malnutrition were very common. The best that peasants could hope for in life was a good harvest. Then they would have enough to eat – mostly bread and root vegetables – and a little extra to sell at market so they could pay their taxes and redemption payments for the year.
13
Q
The town workers
A
Workers like these were unable to improve their conditions. Trade unions were not allowed by
law. Going on strike was illegal. Employers could easily replace troublesome workers who
complained as there were always long queues of unemployed people outside their factory gates
looking for work.
14
Q
The rich (nobility and capitalists)
A
By 1900 a new class of Russians was also becoming rich – the capitalists who made money from
banking, industry and trade. The Minister of Finance, Sergei Witte, made it easy for capitalists to
make big profits. He gave them government contracts, particularly for building railways. He
have them loans to build new factories. He cut taxes. With easy profits to be made the capitalists
did little to improve the conditions for their workers. Hatred of the capitalists steadily grew in
the slums and boarding houses of Russia’s cities.
15
Q
Opponents of the Tsar
A
Most Russians did not question the Tsar’s autocratic system of government. They believed that God had appointed the Tsar to rule over them and that everyone else had their rightful place in
society. But some people refused to accept this. They wanted to get rid of the Tsar and make big
changes to Russian government and society. Some of them were ready to go to any lengths to
achieve this.
16
Q
The Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs)
A
The SRs, as its members were known, wanted all land in Russia to be given to the mirs, the village communes, so that peasants could have a bigger share of land. This would mean taking away land from the Ts7r, the nobles and the church, who between them owned most of Russia. To help achieve their aims the SRs had a ‘Fighting Organisation’ whose job was to organise terrorist campaigns. Between 1900 and 1905 the ‘Fighting Organisation’ managed to kill three government ministers and dozens of other government officials. The SRs gained support from millions of peasants who wanted their own land but who had fallen behind with their yearly
redemption payments.
17
Q
The Social Democratic Party
A
The Social Democratic Party, which followed Marx’s ideas, was set up in 1898. However, its
leaders quickly began to argue about what was the best way to start a socialist revolution. In
1903 they split into two groups, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks.
In a socialist society, Marx thought, people would learn to work together for the good of everyone, not just for themselves. They would stop being selfish and would take only what they needed as payment for their work. At this stage, a system of communism would come into existence, a society in which people work according to their abilities and are paid according to their needs.
18
Q
SDP - the Bolsheviks
A
The Bolsheviks believed that the revolution should be organised by a small group of dedicated
and skilled revolutionaries, they should lead the party and make all the decisions. The Mensheviks believed that the party should be a mass party with as many working class members as possible. It should be run democratically, with the members electing the leaders and deciding on its policies.
19
Q
SDP - the Mensheviks
A
Julius Martov, leader of the Mensheviks, replied that the revolution would fail if it did
not have the support of the working class. The Social Democratic Party remained split on this
issue. Lenin and his supporters failed to reach agreement with Martov and his supporters. So
from 1903 onwards there were three important revolutionary groups in Russia – the Bolsheviks,
the Mensheviks, and the Socialist Revolutionaries.
20
Q
Liberals
A
Not all the Tsar’s opponents were violent revolutionaries. Many law-abiding Russians,
particularly those who owned property, were liberals. They supported the Tsar but they wanted
him to share his power. They wanted a democratic system of government, like the one in Britain
where an elected parliament shared power with the monarch.
21
Q
1905 Revolution
A
Keywords :
Revolution - A forcible overthrow of a government or social order, in favour of a new system.
Duma - The elective legislative assembly established by Tsar Nicholas II in 1905.
Soviet - an elected local, district, or national council.
22
Q
Long term cause – The Tsarist regime.
A
23
Q
The Tsarist regime (political)
A
Article 1 of the Fundamental Laws, 1832 elucidated the intolerance of opposition. Opposition was not tolerated. Political parties were illegal before 1905 and newspapers and books were censored. The government made use of an extensive secret police network, the Okhrana, to root out dissidents
and people likely to cause trouble. Political critics who organised strikes and protests were often put in prison or sent to exile in Siberia. The large-scale protests, demonstrations and riots that often broke out in times of famine were suppressed by force. The much-feared Cossacks were used to deal with any trouble. The Cossacks were a fiercely independent people who came from the Don area of Russia. Once they had been conquered by the
Russians they became loyal supporters of the tsar and could be trusted to act against other peoples of the empire.
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Economic problems.
Around this time the living and working conditions of the country in general was at a poor standard, this was about to be made worse as the
government decided to heavily raise taxes on everyday items like grain and alcohol. Tax was also high which the Russian government decided to invest on the industrial development of Russia. However, in 1902 there was a huge slump in industry as no one in Russia could afford what they were making so there was no demand, this caused a mass loss of jobs in the cities and unemployment rates shot up.
25
Bad harvests
At this time in rural areas, in an awful coincidence, the harvests were very poor due to bad weather and the people were starving. This angered the public after all of there money was spent on a useless industry, they got violent and the tsar called on troops to crush any disturbances from them. This was the start of the problems the tsar had to face and acted as a spark towards the revolution as it was the first major even that happened.
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'Bloody Sunday'
The immediate prelude to ‘Bloody Sunday’ was a strike by 12000 workers at the Putilove Iron Works in St. Petersburg starting on January 1905. Political demands were included along with demands for higher pay and a shorter working day.
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The Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05
The war with Japan arose out of Russia’s expansion policy in the Far East. Japan launched a surprise attack on Russian ships at Port Arthur on 26 January 1904. The Russians underestimated Japan, which had a better trained army and navy, more effective intelligence and was much closer to the action. The Russians suffered several defeats in early 1904 and had to retreat. Public support for the war quickly turned to dismay. In January 1905, Port Arthur fell to the Japanese and in March, the
Russian army was defeated in Maukden. The final humiliation was the naval defeat of the Russian Baltic fleet in May.
28
Historian Abraham Ascher
Abraham Ascher suggests that Russia might have avoided revolution in 1905 if it had not provoked a war with Japan – the catastrophic defeats, he says, justified the opposition claims that the autocratic government was 'irresponsible, incompetent and reckless’. The war acted as a catalyst for meltdown in 1905. Also, the economic impact of the war added to the misery of the general population.
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Bloody Sunday pt2
At the beginning of 1905, anti-government feelings were running high in the capital, especially when news came through that the Russians had lost Port Arthur. When 4 workers were sacked at the giant Putilov engineering works on 7 January, a strike was called which drew in over 100,000 workers.
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strikes
At this stage it was an economic strike concerned with wages and working hours. However, other large industrial enterprises joined in and suddenly
thousands were involved. The situation in the city was becoming tense.
31
Petition
A priest, Father Gapon, organised a petition and a march to the Winter Palace to seek the help of the Tsar. The petition called for an eight-hour day, minimum wages and more dignified treatment.
32
The march
Up to 150,000 men, women and children set off on the morning of Sunday 9 January. The march was peaceful and well-disposed towards the tsar. But as the crowd approached the Winter Palace they were charged by cavalry, and troops opened fire. The casualty figures are unclear but some sources put these at around 130 killed and 300 seriously wounded. This event broke the bond between the tsar and the people.
33
The reaction
The reaction to Bloody Sunday was dramatic. Strikes and disorder quickly spread to other cities and towns. By the end of January, over 400,000 people were out on strike. Demonstrations and disturbances increased in frequency. On 4 February, the Tsar’s own uncle, the Grand Duke Sergei, was assassinated. The shocked regime
had lost its nerve and had lost control of the country.
34
The February 1917 revolution
35
Political problems – incompetence of the Tsar
-Poor decisions led to worsening relations with the govt.
-Refused reduction in absolute power.
-Closed the Duma in 1915.
-Declared himself as Commander in Chief of the army. Departed for the Eastern
Front to take control.
-Not well educated in the tactics of war.
-His absence left a weakened govt.
36
Political problems – The war and the Tsarina
-Tsarina Alexandra left in control.
-Unpopular
-German princess
-Increasing influence over appointment of ministers.
-Appointed incompetent ministers.
37
Issues with Rasputin
Rasputin was a monk from Siberia. He was rumoured to be a Khlyst, member of an extreme underground sect that had split from the Orthodox Church. He was infamous for his drunkenness and for womanising.
38
Revolutionary groups
The membership and influence of revolutionary groups had been severely reduced by 1914, mainly through the repressive tactics of Stolypin and the Okhrana. But radical opinion was not defeated: Revolutionary groups survived underground and continued to attract support.
Revolutionaries managed to assassinate Stolypin in 1911. Pravda, the Bolshevik newspaper, was highly popular amongst workers. Despite the Bolsheviks holding influence over many workers, Lenin had no part in bringing about the February Revolution. He believed that revolution should be organised, not developed from unorganised protests.
39
Impact of World War One
The War brought terrible suffering for soldiers and civilians alike. Best estimates state that almost 2 million Russian soldiers were killed. A similar number of civilians also perished. Morale during this time was very low and the myth of the army as the Russian ‘steamroller’ had been vanquished. The Russian people looked for someone to hold to account for their suffering. In 1915, the Tsar had declared himself Commander in
Chief of the Army. This made him a suitable target for this discontent.
40
Military defeats
World War One was a total disaster for Russia. The Russian army suffered defeat after defeat at the hands of Germany.
41
Leadership
In 1915, Tsar Nicholas II took personal command of the army. He left St Petersburg and moved to army headquarters in Russian Poland. Nicholas II may have believed that, by taking charge, his army would be inspired and would fight with renewed vigour. Unfortunately, the Tsar knew little about the command and organisation of large military forces. The series of defeats and humiliations continued. The organisation of the Russian army deteriorated and there were massive shortages of ammunition, equipment, and medical supplies.
42
Economic effects of the defeats
14 million men were called up to serve in the army between 1914 and 1917.
Prices inflated. especially food and land.
43
Economic and social problems
By the beginning of 1917, the country was facing virtual economic collapse. Agricultural methods remained backward and still relied on many peasants being able to work the land. Peasant farmers were conscripted which led to a lack of manpower in the farms which led to food shortages.
By 1916, inflation had reached 200 %, the value of the rouble had fallen substantially and the price of goods was soaring. This made life increasingly difficult, particularly for poorer people.
44
Failures of the October Manifesto (consequence of the 1905 revolution)
The October Manifesto was published to address the unrest. This granted full civil liberties, extended the franchise and ordered elections to a state Duma. This offer pleased the majority of the Russian proletariat. However, the Tsar was dissatisfied with having to make these changes as he felt he should have total control over the Russian Empire. Although the Tsar did establish a nationally elected parliament, the Duma, legalized political parties and trade unions, he undermined these through autocratic rule and the continued activity of the secret police.
45
What did the Tsar do?
Repealed acts, ensured that no law could be passed without his approval.
46
The first duma
The first Duma, won by the Kadets was dissolved by the Tsar in only ten weeks as he found it too radical.
47
The second duma
The second Duma, now containing Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was also a failure as the party was conflicting.
48
The fall of the Tsar
Nicholas made an attempt to return from the war front to the capital, Petrograd, and reclaim his authority. But in late February revolutionaries diverted the train to Pskov. Isolated and powerless without the support of the army, his reign as Tsar was over - the only option now was abdication.
49
The Provisional Government
A Provisional Government was formed with Alexander Kerensky in charge. Russia was now a republic.
The main revolutionary parties were taken by surprise—this was a real people’s revolution caused by a sudden risings of workers and soldiers sick of the war, shortages and high prices.
This set up to see the Provisional Government having a confrontation with the
revolutionaries – a group from the SDLP called themselves Bolsheviks.
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Problems with the provisional government
Problems were mainly economic. The 10x price rise from 1914-1917 made it impossible for the government to function.
A network of Soviets—elected committees of peasants, workers, and soldiers–was
established and the Petrograd Soviet became an alternative government.
The Soviets told workers and soldiers to keep striking and demonstrating to
undermine the Provisional Government.
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The October revolution inspection
52
Dual government
-Authority of Provisional Government limited by its unofficial partnership with the Petrograd Soviet.
-Soviet had most power. (support of soldiers, factory workers etc.)
-Key groups – country could grind to a halt.
-Soldiers’ allegiance to the Soviet.
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How the government dealt with Russia’s problems
The Provisional Government was not an elected body, so it lacked legitimate authority and had no constitutional claim upon the loyalty of the Russian people. Therefore, the people would judge it entirely on how well it dealt with the country’s problems. In the eyes of the Russian people, the country’s most pressing problems were the highly unpopular war, the distribution of land, and the shortages of food and raw materials.
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PROBLEM 1: THE WAR
The provisional had financial incentives to continue with the war. However, the war continued to go badly for Russia. Russian forces were no match for the Austrians. desert. As desertions increased, the government set up death squads to hunt down
and execute deserters. This only increased the unpopularity of the government among the soldiers.
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PROBLEM 2: LAND
There were over 200 cases of land seizures in July alone. The Provisional Government had no real answer to the land problem. It stated that this was such an
important issue that it should be left to the properly elected government of Russia which would soon follow.
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PROBLEM 3: SHORTAGES OF FOOD AND RAW MATERIALS
Shortages of fuel and raw materials led to the closure of over 500 factories in Petrograd between February and July, with the loss of 100,000 jobs.
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Return of Lenin (Leader of the Bolshevik Party)
He condemned the Provisional Government and called for its overthrow in a genuine revolution. The following day he issued his April Theses, in which he spelt out future Bolshevik policy.
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What was the April thesis?
- War must be ended immediately.
- Land must be given to peasants.
- The soviets should take power on behalf of the workers.
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The essence
The essence of Lenin’s argument was summed up in two provocative Bolshevik slogans that he coined: ‘Peace, Bread and Land’ and ‘All Power to the Soviets’.
‘Peace’ – The continuing war with Germany
‘Bread’ – The chronic food shortage
‘Land’ – The peasants’ desire to own land
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July Days
Sparked by the failure of the summer’s war offensive, workers’ anger at their continued economic plight, and the Petrograd garrison’s fear that their troops were to be sent to the Front. However, the uprising lacked coherent leadership.
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New prime minister - Kerensky
A new Prime Minister was elected 2 days later, Kerensky. He immediately turned the heat on the
Bolsheviks, whom he saw as the instigators of the troubles. Their newspaper, Pravda, was closed
down. Many leading Bolsheviks, including Trotsky and Kamenev, were arrested. Lenin fled to Finland. Kerensky also launched a propaganda campaign in which Lenin and the Bolsheviks were branded as traitors and German agents. The Bolshevik party now appeared broken as a political force in Russia.
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Kornilov Affair
The army’s new commander-in-chief, General Kornilov, mounted an armed right-wing uprising in an attempt to overthrow the Provisional Government and avoid defeat in the war.
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...pt2
The government ordered the early release of its Bolshevik prisoners, and issued them with rifles to help protect the city. On 1 st September Kornilov was forced to abandon his uprising due to the scale of opposition from ordinary workers, e.g. railway workers who refused to operate trains to bring his armed supporters to Petrograd. It was the Bolsheviks who gained most from his failed coup. They had been able to present themselves as defenders of Petrograd and the Revolution. The government, however, found themselves further discredited by the affair. Kerensky later admitted
that the Kornilov affair had been ‘the prelude to the October Revolution’.
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How did the Bolshevik’s take power?
By September 1917 the Bolsheviks had acquired a majority on the Petrograd Soviet. This meant that
they were now in a key position to challenge the authority of the Provisional Government. Trotsky used this position to draft the plans for the overthrow of the Provisional Government. At this
point Lenin was once more in exile in Finland, due to his anti-government activities. From here he
constantly appealed to his party to prepare to overthrow the government.
The Bolsheviks seized power through arrests.
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Russian civil war
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Why did the Bolsheviks win the Russian Civil
War?
Treaty of
Brest-Litovsk
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Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
-Lost 1 mill sq km of land
-50 million people
-27% farming land
-Lost Ukraine, where Russia got most of it’s
grain from
-74% iron ore and coal deposits
-Had to pay 3 bill roubles
68
Causes of the Civil War
-Opposition forces unite to form the Whites – supported by foreign countries.
-Increasing attacks/attempts to overthrow the Bolsheviks.
-SRs tried to seize power of Moscow Soviet.
- several assassination attempts on Lenin.
-50, 000 Czech prisoners of war take over the Trans Siberian Railway.
-Anger at the Treaty (directed at Trotsky)
-Starvation meant growing opposition
-National minorities seize opportunity to get independence.
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Reds Vs Whites
Reds = Communist
(Bolsheviks)
Whites = opponents (Tsarists and
nobles, middle class constitutional
democrats, Mensheviks, SR)
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Reds - aims, geographical factors and leadership and unity.
Aims - Stay in Power in order to build new
Socialist society.
Geo factors - Held central area of west Russian –
contained large industries. Controlled railways.
Leadership and unity - Trotsky – true leader and
courageous, Special training, Cheka (terror)
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Whites, same thing for aforementioned
Aims - Different aims due to different interests.
Common aim to defeat the Communists.
Geographical factors - Scattered around outer perimeter of communist controlled Moscow.
Communication difficulties.
Leadership and unity - Lacked good leader to bring all the Whites together. Lack of trust. Infighting within the armies.
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Causes of civil war
In many ways the outbreak of Civil War in Russia in 1918 was inevitable as the Bolsheviks were a minority party who had seized control of Petrograd, had only a limited grip on power in the rest of the country, and faced much internal opposition. The main causes of this bitter three year conflict, which killed up to 10 million people and had a costly impact on Russia’s already fragile economy, are explored below.
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1. Opposition to the Bolsheviks from within Russia – INTERNAL OPPOSITION
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Supporters of the Tsar
There was still a large and influential group of people in Russia who sought the restoration of the Tsar. These included nationalists, nobles, landowners. These wealthy groups had much to lose in the redistribution of wealth which would inevitably arise from a Communist regime.
75
Anger at the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
The terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which ended Russia’s involvement in World War One, were extremely harsh. Russia lost one million square kilometres of land, 27% of its arable land (used to grow crops), 26% of its railways, 74% of its coal and iron reserves, 26% of its population and had to pay reparations of 3 billion roubles.
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Growing social and economic hardship
Inflation caused prices to rise, and Russia’s main wheat-supply area, the Ukraine, had been taken away by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. By March 1918 the bread ration in Petrograd reached its lowest ever allocation of 50 grams a day. By June 1918 the workforce of Petrograd had shrunk from 3 million to 2 million as starving workers left the city for the countryside in order to be closer to the supply of food. Such hardships led to growing violence on the streets.
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Lenin’s reaction to the establishment of breakaway regimes
Allowed people to break away from russia.
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2. Opposition to the Bolsheviks from outside Russia – EXTERNAL OPPOSITION
Britain, France, the USA and Japan all feared the spread of Communism and so gave their support to the anti-Bolshevik forces inside Russia. They were also angry that Lenin had withdrawn Russia from the First World War, which led the Eastern front to collapse, and furious at Lenin’s refusal to repay all loans given to Russia by the Allies (war credits).
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3. The role of the Czech Legion
The Czech Legion was a group of over 40,000 Czech soldiers who had fought for the Russians in the war in order to gain independence from Austria-Hungary. They were deeply unhappy at Russia’s withdrawal from the war and remained in Russia, fully armed. While Bolshevik forces attempted to escort them out of the country they suddenly
overpowered them in an armed skirmish at Cheliabinsk on the Trans-Siberian railway. Britain and France quickly stepped in, encouraging the Czechs to fight on and possibly re- activate the Eastern Front. This action encouraged the formation of the White army and was the trigger for the Civil War.
80
4. Did Lenin actively encourage the outbreak of Civil War?
Modern revisionist research strongly suggests that Lenin actively encouraged the outbreak of Civil War. One of his main reasons for pushing ahead with Russia’s withdrawal from the First World War was to allow him to focus on his internal opponents. By refusing to form a socialist alliance Lenin also knew that challenges to his rule were
inevitable. Lenin was convinced that, faced with his enemies, his forces would win and that in winning they would wipe out all their opponents; military and political. Lenin felt it was better to have a short, brutal struggle than face many years of being challenged and undermined by anti-Bolshevik groups.
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Why did the Bolsheviks win the Russian Civil War?
Strengths of the reds and weakness of whites.
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Strengths of the reds
-Leadership of Lenin and Trotsky
-Control of central areas and railways
-Support of peasants
-Use of propaganda
-Role of Cheka (terror)
-War communism
83
Weakness of the whites
-Poor leadership.
-Lack of unity.
-Nationalist groups.
84
What were the strengths of the Reds?
-Peasants supported the reds because Lenin introduced the decree of land in 1917, which gave peasants the right to land.
-Propaganda used effectively by the Bolsheviks.
-Trotsky made the decision to take over railways – this was key.
-Main features of War Communism were:
-Rationing of food in cities was strictly applied during food shortages.
-Private trading was banned. Peasants had to give surplus food to government and if unwilling to surrender it they would face the squads. (food
requisitioning)
-Factories of more than 10 workers were nationalised. The state then owned factories.
-Rapid inflation which left money valueless – bartering was how they exchanged goods as opposed to money.
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Leadership of Lenin and Trotsky
-Lenin was strict and had severe discipline.
-Trotsky was inspiring and well organised.
-Trotsky made the decision to take over railways – this was key.
-Reds had unified leadership with Lenin and Trotsky.
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Control of central area and railways
-Reds occupied the central Russian speaking territory.
-Central areas that the Reds controlled contained factories to produce armaments.
-Reds moved their capital to Moscow.
-Reds made better use of the railways than Whites.
They transported ammunition and communication was better.
-Most of the population lived in the centralised area making conscription easier.
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Support of peasants
-Lenin introduced the Decree of Land in 1917, which gave peasants the right to land.
-Brutality of Whites meant that peasants supported
Reds.
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Role of Cheka
-Cheka was left responsible for dealing with law and order.
-Dzerhinsky brought in Red Terror – arrested, tortured and executed.
-By the end of Civil War 200,000 opponents were
killed and 85,000 were in prison.
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Use of propaganda
-Bolsheviks made great use of propaganda.
-Reds used powerful images and slogans.
-Reds used messages such as:
Whites will take away your land.
Foreign powers support Whites to control Russia.
Reds offer a new society for workers and peasants.
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War Communism
(mentioned previously)
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War communism ...pt2
War Communism was the name given to the economic system that existed in Russia from 1918 to 1921. War Communism was introduced by Lenin to combat the economic problems brought on by
the civil war in Russia. It was a combination of emergency measures and socialist beliefs.
92
The multiple challenges of 1921 as a result of war
communism
-Famine, disease and revolt stalked the land
-Cheka sources show there were 118 separate risings throughout Soviet Russia in February 1921.
-By 1921, Soviet (Russian) economy was in ruins.
-The transport system was on the point of collapse.
-Factories could not get materials thy needed and most industries had ceased production.
-Famine was rampant in the South and thousands were dying from disease.
-Large sections of society not willing to put up with the continuation of war time policies
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Main threat to Communist Government?
Now the Civil War was over, main threat came from the peasantry. Hostility to grain requisitioning erupted in a series of revolts. The most serious revolt was the Tambov uprising from 1920 to June
1921 led by Alexander Antonov. A poor harvest in 1920 had left peasants with almost no reserves of grain. When requisitioning brigades arrives to take what little they had, the peasants reacted violently. At the height of the rebellion, large parts of the Tambov region were no-go areas for the Communist authorities.
94
Growing opposition in the cities
Workers also discontented because:
They were forced to work long hours under strict new laws that included the death penalty for striking.
Rations were inadequate and often no rations at all.
Some peasants brought food to sell on black market but this was too high for most workers. Those caught trading were often shot.
Big cities begin to empty as workers returned to the countryside in hope of finding food. Moscow lost 50 % of inhabitants during War Communism.
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Growing unrest
Many of those who remained in the cities became more opposed to the government.
Lenin even faced opposition from within the party.
A group called Workers’ Opposition was formed to press for changes to War Communism. Argued it did not work and communists should do more for the working class.
In the cities, severe winter of 1920-21 brought repeated strikes.
Jan 1921 – bread ration was cut by one third.
Food demonstrations had to be broken up by the Cheka and special troops because soldiers refused to fire on the crowds.
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The Kronstadt Mutiny
March 1921 – There was a rebellion of sailors at the naval base of Kronstadt against Bolshevik government.
Greatest challenge for Lenin and Trotsky over War Communism.
These were among Lenin’s most loyal supporters so he realised something had to be done.
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How did the communist government react to
the unrest?
Lenin wanted no opposition and decided to stop the protests.
Trotsky had to use the Red Army to put down the rebellion.
Lenin realised he had to change the policy – for him, Kronstadt was the ‘flash that lit up reality’.
March 1921, Lenin abandoned War Communism and introduced the New Economic Policy in its place.
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How did the Bolsheviks consolidate power – the Cheka and the Red Terror
The systematic use of terror was used by Lenin to back up any new measures, remove any opposition to the Bolshevik regime and establish a one-party state.
The Red Terror was launched by the Cheka in the summer of 1918 to terrify all hostile social groups. Its victims included large numbers of workers and peasants as well as princes, priests, judges, traders and even children.
In the cities, Cheka arrests were often of a terrifyingly random nature e.g being an acquaintance of a suspect.
The cheka imprisoned opponents in concentrations and labour camps (The Gulag)
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How did the Bolsheviks consolidate power –
Centralisation of government under Lenin
By 1924, the USSR was governed by a centralised one-party dictatorship which did not permit anyone to challenge its power.
Large part of the economy (industry, banking, foreign trade and transport) all brought under the control of the Communist government)
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How did Stalin become leader of the Soviet Union?
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Lenin's legacy was bad.
Following his death in 1924 after a series of strokes.
He did remove the Romanovs as well as the aristocracy and landowners.
He used the Cheka to remove any opposition (any means necessary).
Adopted war communism to win the civil war.
Pragmatic – changed war communism to NEP.
Created a one-party state (end of democracy).
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Stalin - strengths
Had a crucial position as General Secretary so he had a strong power base.
Had mastered the theories of Marxism-Leninism.
Concealed his intentions well.
Placed himself close to Lenin during his illness.
Made an alliance with Zinoviev and Kamenev.
One of the original members.
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Stalin - Weaknesses
He played a small role in the October Revolution.
Antagonised other leading communists.
His colleagues were aware of what Lenin said about him in his Testament.
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How did Stalin eliminate his competitors for control of the Soviet Union?
After Lenin's death, Stalin was given the honour of organizing the official funeral. He arranged the funeral and ignored Lenin’s final wishes. Stalin also gave a speech at the funeral, despite the opposition of Lenin’s window. Stalin, under the rules of the
Party, was now the de-facto successor of Lenin. However, the party was not fully under his control. He had to share power with a collection of other Soviet leaders, including Trotsky, Zinoviev, and Kamenev.
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Conclusion
By 1928, Stalin was the undisputed ruler of the Soviet Union. He was widely seen as an uneducated peasant. However, he managed to turn this to his advantage, and in his role as General Secretary, he built a power base in the country. Stalin was also
generally popular among the ordinary Party members, and this was crucial to his success. Stalin effectively built a powerful and influential following, which allowed him to take total control of the Soviet Union gradually.
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Stalin's policies
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Stalin’s ‘Revolution from above.’
November 1927, Joseph Stalin launched his “revolution from above” by setting two extraordinary goals for Soviet domestic policy: rapid industrialization and collectivization of agriculture.
He wanted to bring about economic, social and cultural transformation of Russia at a breakneck pace.
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Stalin’s Economic Reforms – Part 1: Agriculture and Collectivisation
Aims of collectivisation
– to take all land from the peasants and give it to the state.
- Small, inefficient, labour intensive and unproductive farm units would be replaced by large, efficient, mechanised and productive units.
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Why did Stalin introduce collectivisation?
1)To release the labourers needed for Russia to begin its industrial transformation
2)To gain control over food supply and distribution.
3)To increase control over the economy in line with Communist theory.
4) To increase his power.
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How did Stalin carry out the policy of collectivisation?
.
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How did Stalin carry out the policy of
collectivisation?
Party officials entered villages and seized all property, animals, machinery, grain and tools as property of the new collectives.
Peasants were rounded up, counted and then divided up as the officials saw fit; most were sent to the new collectives (kolkhoz), but in highly
populated areas some were put on trains bound for Stalin’s new industrial towns. In both cases force was used if necessary.
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...pt2
Any peasant who refused to comply risked being labelled as a kulak, and shot, deported or sent to a gulag labour camp.
Sometimes whole villages were deported as a lesson to others. Historians estimate that up to ten million people had been deported to Siberia or sent
to the gulag camps by the end of the collectivisation process – a huge loss of manpower.
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Was there resistance?
Peasants put up fierce resistance.
In March 1930 – Stalin was forced to halt collectivisation.
He was worried there would be no crop to harvest in the summer.
As soon as the harvest was gathered, the process began again with as much violence.
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How successful was Collectivisation?
Despite the opposition the government faced, the programme of collectivisation was highly successful. By 1933 70% of peasant households had been collectivised. This rose to 100% by 1941.
Seizures of grain were able to more than double within a five year period.
Export levels of grain increased. This allowed them to purchase the equipment needed to modernise industry.
Increased Stalin’s power.
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Failures
The human cost
Starvation in the countryside. Some starving resorted to eating their own children.
Peasants could receive 10 years in the gulag for stealing grain.
Approximately 4 mil died in the famine between 32 and 33.
Altogether, historians estimate that between 5 and 13 million peasants died as a result of collectivisation.
The scale of human suffering would not have been a matter of concern to Stalin, whose focus remained on the wider picture of economic reform and industrialisation
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Stalin’s economic reforms – part 2: Industrialisation and the five-year plans.
there were 3 fiver-year plans.
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The first Five Year Plan – 1928 to 1932
Concentrated on heavy industry such as coal, steel and iron to the exclusion of others.
Stalin justified this by stating that an industrial infrastructure of factories, plants and communications before other sectors could flourish.
An instant ‘hit’ of materials and workers, called ‘shock brigades’, could be sent into certain areas on orders of senior party officials to shore up production targets.
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The second Five Year Plan – 1933 to 1937
The emphasis was on consolidating the achievements of the first Plan.
This plan did initially set higher targets for the production of consumer goods but the rise of Hitler changed the focus towards defence, which meant that heavy industry continued to receive priority.
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The third Five Year Plan 1938-1941
Geared even more directly towards arms production in order to meet the threat of
Germany
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Why did Stalin introduce the Five – Year Plans?
Economic motives
-Break away from NEP.
-Enable government to direct the economy.
Political motives
-Ensure survival of the communist revolution.
-Class enemies eliminated.
Defence motives
-Self sufficient in case of invasion.
-Stalin believed they would be ‘crushed’ if they did not advance.
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Processes of the five year plans
From 1928 – state has complete control of Soviet
industries.
Stalin and the Supreme Economic Council (Vesenkha) agree most investment to major heavy industries of coal, iron and steel.
Gosplan (state planning authority) sets targets. The targets backed by law.
New industrial areas established east of the Ural
mountains.
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Successes and failures of first plan
Successes
– production of electricity, coal and iron doubled.
-Steel production increases by a third.
Failures
– Detailed planning not done. Although targets given, not told how these should be met.
-Factory managers who did not meet targets were accused of sabotage and were deliberately trying to undermine the progress of the Communist Revolution.
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successes and failures of second plan
Success:
New industry was concentrated in large centres. Magnitogorsk and Gorki examples of massive new industrial towns built. Many prestige projects completed in this period. Sheila Fitzpatrick described it as ‘Gigantomania. They included the Dnieper Dam and the Moscow-volga canal. More detailed plans were provided for each industry.
Failure :
Lack of consumer goods.
Oil production experienced a slow growth.
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Successes and failures of third plan
Successes:
-Defence and armaments grew rapidly – key actor in Russia’s defeat of the Nazis.
- Most heavy industry continues to grow.
Failures: Much less planning (chaotic again)
Fuel crisis not enough oil produced.
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The Great Terror - The Purges
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What were the purges?
The Purges is the name given to Stalin’s removal of people who he felt posed a real, or possible, threat to his leadership or control of Communist Russia.
Initially the purges consisted of expelling members from the Communist party.
Soon, however, this turned to physical extermination of those whom Stalin sought to destroy.
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Who were those affected by the purges?
1928-36 - The party.
1937-39 - The armed forces and the people.
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How were the purges carried out?
7 stages.
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Early stages - 1928 - 1934
Expulsion of party members who may support one of Stalin’s opponents, e.g. the right wing Ryutin and his followers were tried and expelled from the party.
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Centralisation of control 1933-34
Police, cheka, labour camps, border security and new military courts (outside of existing legal system) were all put under the control of a
new body, the NKVD, led by Yagoda and answerable directly to Stalin. Vyshinsky was appointed as State Prosecutor.
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Murder of Kirov 1934
Kirov, a leading light in the Politburo, and known opponent of the Five Year Plans, was perceived by many as a figure around which an anti-Stalin movement could form. He was assassinated, probably on Stalin’s orders, in 1934.
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The Post-Kirov Purges 1934-36
Stalin claimed Kirov’s assassination was the work of left wing Trotskyists and launched a large scale purge of the party.
Thousands were expelled or executed, including leading figures such as Zinoviev and Kamenev.
Arbitrary arrest and execution became the norm. E.g. of the 1996 delegates who attended the 1934 Party Congress 1108 were executed in the next three years.
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The Great Purge 1936-39
Despite the fact that Stalin’s supremacy over the party had been established the purges didn’t stop, in fact they increased in their intensity.
This period included public show trials and executions of former party heroes, e.g. Bukharin and Rykov.
Yagoda was perceived as being too lenient and was replaced as leader of the NKVD by Yezhov.
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Purge of the armed forces
1937-39
Marshall Tukhachevsky, Chief of General Staff, and
7 other leading generals tried for treason and
executed.
Over 35,000 leading members of the army, navy
and airforce executed.
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Purge of the people :The ‘Yezhovschina’ 1937-39
One person in every eight of the population was arrested.
Introduction of the quota system for NKVD operatives.
Almost every family in the USSR suffered the loss of at least one of its members as a result of these purges.
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What was the impact of the purges
-Over 20 million Russians were killed.
-Vital industrial and agricultural manpower and expertise was lost.
-Vital military manpower and expertise was lost
on the eve of World War Two
-All real or potential opponents of Stalin within the party were eliminated.
-Stalin’s power became absolute.
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Lavrentiy Beria
Top deputy of the NKVD during the Great Purge,
responsible for many of the millions of imprisonments and killings.
At the end of the Purge, he became head of the NKVD, and carried out a purge of the NKVD itself.
138
Andrey Vyshinsky
State prosecutor of Stalin's show trials during
the Great Purges.
139
The cult of Stalin
Stalin as the ‘Lenin of today’
Focus on Stalin’s economic ‘achievements’
Leader, teacher friend.
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...pt2
The Soviet press constantly praised Stalin, describing him as "Great", "Beloved", "Bold", "Wise", "Inspirer", and "Genius".It portrayed him as a caring yet strong father figure, with the Soviet populace as his "children". From 1936, the Soviet press started to refer to Stalin as the "Father of Nations", reminding the peasantry of their image of their previous ruler, the tsar, who was seen as a "stern family patriarch". After years of revolutions and civil war, the Russian people longed for strong and purposeful leadership.
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The new constitution of 1936
The 1936 Constitution redesigned the government of the Soviet Union, nominally granted all manner of rights and freedoms, and spelled out a number of democratic procedures. The Congress of Soviets replaced itself with the Supreme Soviet, which amended the 1936 Constitution in 1944.
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Social change - Women
143
Under Lenin
-Divorce made simple.
-Abortion and contraception.
-Equal pay.
-Equal educational opportunities.
144
Under Stalin
-Marriage and family
-Birth rates falling, wanted more (ind.)
-Social impacts of easy divorce – gangs.
-Party dominated by men who felt women were not equal.
145
Changes after 1936
-Controls on contraception and abortion.
- Incentives for women to have children (Mothers – 6 children – 2000 roubles a year for 5. Large amount!)
- Stricter conditions for divorce (1936) – higher fees.
- Abolition of Zenotdel (1930) – women’s section of the Communist Party. Reason – all women’s problems had been solved.
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Social change - children
147
Komsomol – Soviet youth organisation.
Goal – turn Soviet children into hardworking and obedient citizens.
Komsomol – Youth division of Communist party continued – 10 million members by 1940, but not
all young people involved (some preferred Western films, fashion and music which was frowned upon).
Conservative morality – sexual abstinence.
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School
– 1935 New Curriculum. Discipline, national
tradition, literacy, numeracy. Produce disciplined
and educated workers, ready to work in industry.
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Social change - Religion
Lenin tolerated religious worship. However, he launched a campaign to weaken the Orthadox church and seized their land.
under Stalin, 99% of churches from 1917 were siezed or destroyed. Protesters were branded as "kulaks". 1940- only 500 churches were open for worship.
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WW2
151
The Nazi-Soviet Pact 1939
Non-aggression deal between Hitler and Stalin.
Allowed Hitler to expand into Eastern Europe.
Stalin to expand his territory into Baltic states.
152
The Great Patriotic War
Germany and the Soviet Union remained unsatisfied with the outcome of World War I (1914–1918). Soviet Russia had lost substantial territory in Eastern Europe as a result of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918), where the Bolsheviks in Petrograd conceded to German demands and ceded control of Poland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Finland, and other areas, to the Central Powers. Subsequently, when Germany in its turn surrendered to the Allies (November 1918) and these territories became independent states under the terms of the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 at Versailles, Soviet Russia was in the midst of a civil war and the Allies did not recognise the Bolshevik government, so no Soviet Russian representation attended.
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How far was Soviet Union prepared for war?
The Red Army – Between 1936 and 1938, the Red Army had been purged, removing all of its most senior officials.
This weakened the strength of the army.
The Russian economy – Chaos of the Third Five-Year . Plan made economic preparation difficult
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Social impact of the war, economic impact and reasons for victory,.
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1Zv0IweDfidvM1bPWZwBJXH2sIOCmXSmZujLPJ0ozLM0/edit?usp=sharing
