AS. Doughton - Italy (taken out of exam spec) Flashcards
(151 cards)
1
Q
intro- Liberal Italy problems pre WWI
A
.
2
Q
Unification of Italy
A
-Not until 1861 that the kingdom of Italy was set
up.
-Risorgimento – the resurgence, or Italy rising up
again is the term used to describe the process of
unification between 1859 and 1870.
3
Q
The new Liberal state
A
-By 1870 political unification had occurred,
however only 2% had the vote (middle
class).
-Liberals saw themselves as educated elite
who would lead Italy to a great power
status, greater prosperity and national
unity.
4
Q
What is ‘Liberal?’
A
Liberal - relating to or denoting a political and
social philosophy that promotes individual
rights, civil liberties, democracy, and free
enterprise. Conservative version of liberal.
New Italy a monarch rather than a republic as
they envisaged.
5
Q
Liberal Italy - Lack of identity
A
Only 2% of populace spoke Italian.
6
Q
Economic weakness
A
68% dependent on land
Lack of natural resources
7
Q
Catholic church
A
Pope refused to recognise the Italian state – boycott elections
8
Q
Political weakness
A
No 2 party system
29 PM between 1870-1922
Form coalition regardless of beliefs (trasformismo =
bribery and pressure)
9
Q
Opposition to liberals.
A
.
10
Q
Socialists
A
Wanted better pay and working conditions.
Italian Socialist Party (PSI) had 27,000 members by 1897.
Criticised Liberals – said wages were still low and poverty widespread. Believed people emigrated
because of liberals.
11
Q
Catholics
A
Increasingly worried over the rise in popularity of socialist party.
Church lifted ban on Catholics voting in General elections and encouraged that they should get involved in politics.
Criticised Liberals - poverty still remained; however many Catholics preferred Liberal party to the alternative Socialist party.
12
Q
Nationalists
A
Middle class wealthy people wanted a larger empire in Africa and more spending on military.
Early influence on Fascism.
Criticised Liberals – lacked the motivation to make Italy a major force. Believed high emigration down to national disgrace.
13
Q
The main threats to the stability of the Liberal governments in Italy after 1918.
A
.
14
Q
The impacts of WWI
A
-Support from Nationalists. Lacked support of masses.
-5 million served. Mostly rural. Industrial working class exempt.
-Low pay. Small rations. Appalling conditions.
-Heavy casualties - 460,000 killed with 955,000 injured.
-After 2 years, its army cracked under a surprise Austro-German attack.
15
Q
Battle of Caparetto
A
700,000 retreat in disorder for over 100 miles until the line was held at the river plate.
300,000 taken as prisoners.
Nationalists blamed the government in inefficiency and incompetence in running war and in supplying the troops.
Victory at the Battle of Vittorio Venetto, Austria sue for peace.
Armistice signed on 3rd November 1918.
16
Q
Impact of ‘Mutilated victory’.
A
-Nationalists believed weak liberal govt would fail to defend Italian interests at the peace conference.
-Should receive territories agreed with entente. And Fiume.
-Treaty of St Germain did cede Austrian land.
-GB and US refuse to hand over Fiume – Nationalists blamed liberal weakness.
17
Q
…pt2
A
-Denied Dalmatia and would not share in the division of German colonies in Africa, Nationalists were outraged.
-To them, Italy had been cheated. Had only one Italy a ‘Mutilated Victory’ and Liberalism was the culprit.
-Mutilated Victory – the claim that Italy had been denied its rightful territorial gains in the peace settlement after WW1.
18
Q
…pt3
A
-Demobilised soldiers – peace settlement further humiliation. Many feared the expansionist Italy they fought for was being undermined by a weak govt.
-Believed their Italy was falling into the hands of socialist revolutionaries.
-Other methods would need to be used to achieve a powerful Italy.
19
Q
Economic problems, strikes and unemployment.
A
-Italians disappointed with outcomes. Severe problems left by war.
-Inflation – Massive financial cost of war – Huge sums borrowed form GB and USA. National debt increased (16b lira in 1914 to 85 billion in 1918).
-Money borrowed inadequate. Govt resorted to printing money.
Dramatic effect. Prices quadruple during war.
20
Q
…pt2
A
-Inflation destroyed savings, hitting middle class in particular. Landowners relying on rent and state employers whose wages did not keep up also
suffered. Also, factory workers.
-Industrialists did well – war production. As inflation increased they raised prices. Govt continued to buy their products. However, victory meant end of easy profits. Hard times lay ahead for industries.
21
Q
…pt3
A
-Industrial disputes – Wave of labour militancy.
Wartime discipline in the factories, enforced by
military, was relaxed.
-Workers who resented the long hours, low wages,
ban on industrial action vented their frustration.
-During 1919 over a million workers took part in
strikes and the membership of Socialist trade unions shot up from ¼ million in 1918 to two million in 1920.
-Unemployment – Soldiers returning from home
plunged into this deteriorating economic situation.
Industries did not take on new workers.
-Unemployment broke 2m mark during 1919.
Soldiers felt poor reward for their sacrifices.
22
Q
Fear of socialism. (socialist threat)
A
-Economy worsened, political divisions widened.
-Industrial workers flocked to socialist party (50,000 in 1914 to 200,000 by 1919).
-Advocated revolution. Inspired by Russian Revolution. Socialists call for overthrow of the
Liberal state.
-Goal – a ‘socialist republic’. Private businesses and landed estates would be confiscated and wealth shared.
-1919 congress – use of violence for proletariat to overthrow the bourgeoisie.
23
Q
…pt2
A
-Elections of Nov 1919 – first under universal male suffrage – the Socialists swept through the northern cities. 32.4% of votes. Win 156 seats. Now largest party.
-Many middle class Italians terrified. Many conservative Italians disgusted that govt doing nothing to meet the threat. Instead of using the power of the state to crush strikes, the liberal govt of Francesco Nitti was urging industrialists to make concessions.
24
Q
…pt3
A
-Shop keepers alienated in June 1919 – government surrender to rioters protesting against food prices. The govt had set up food committees that had requisitioned supplies and set prices. The continuing inflation that provoked the food riots – taken to be proof of government incompetence.
-Landowners – appalled by govt’s failure to halt spread of revolution in countryside. Many peasants occupying uncultivated land and farming it for themselves.
-Agricultural labourers were joining Socialist trade unions and demanding higher wages.
25
Bienno Rossa
The socialist threat is referred to as Bienno Rossa - Meaning the two red years.
26
Impact of seizure of Fiume.
-Sept 1919 – Nationalist intellectual Gabriele D’Annunzio led 2000 armed men into the city of Fiume and occupied it in defiance of the Italian
govt.
-Nationalists and many ex-soldiers hailed him as the embodiment of the Italy they wanted to create.
-Way to achieve results – Act decisively and not be afraid to use force.
27
...pt2
Liberal govt did not use troops to end
the occupation.
D’Annunzio ruled Fiume for over a
year.
Public hero. Model for Mussolini.
28
Summary
-Due to the First World War Italy was vulnerable.
-Extreme groups were offering Italians a
way out of the dire economic situation.
-Fascists developed as a political force.
-Liberal government were threatened by
the rising Socialist party (PSI).
29
Mussolini and the rise of Fascism.
.
30
What is Fascism?
The first Fascist movement was founded by Mussolini in Italy but similar movements developed elsewhere. Fascism has been seen as a response to the political and economic tensions in much of Europe after WW1 but it has also risen in other countries at times of strain.
Fascism is normally viewed as a right-wing movement but initially some ideas were similar to
left wing ideologies as there were some anti capitalist views within it.
31
What factors led to the rise in Fascism?
-Fascist type ideas developed pre 1914.
-WW1 vital catalyst in fascist development.
-Many countries emerged from war with a profound sense of grievance.
-Fascism fed on nationalist grievances.
-Boosted by economic misery and the perceived weakness of democratic regimes.
32
...pt2
-The war produced in Russia a communist Revolution.
-Fascists gained support by pledging themselves to resist communism.
-Fascism only attracted mass support when there was a serious communist threat.
33
Mussolini and the birth of fascism
-Mussolini had nothing but hatred for Liberalism and Socialism.
-Although a former Socialist, the war had convinced him that Italy needed a regime that would end the struggle between social classes and, unlike the Liberals, provide dynamic leadership.
34
Creation of the Fascist movement.
By early 1919 Mussolini believed that it was time to translate his rhetoric into action. Accordingly, in March, he called the inaugural meeting of a new movement, the Fasci de Combattimento, or ‘Combat Groups’. Only about 100 people came to Milan for the meeting. They represented a wide range of political views, including nationalists,
republican, anarchists and radical poets and painters.
35
...pt2
They had little in common except a hatred of the Liberal state and a contempt for the class struggle rhetoric of the Socialists. Nevertheless, they did manage to draw up a political programme that contained both demands for an expansionist Italy and the following, leftist, statements of intent: A new national assembly to be set up, abolition of monarchy etc.
36
Early failure
In the 1919 election, the
Fascists fared disastrously
and won no seats. Mussolini
won only two % of the vote
in Milan.
37
Italian problems in 1920
In 1920 the veteran politician Giolitti became premier. He soon faced problems. In September workers occupied factories across northern Italy. Employers demanded government action. Fearing that the use of force would result in a bloodbath, Giolitti stood aloof, hoping that the occupation would collapse of its own accord.
38
...pt2
It did – but employers and conservatives did not forgive Giolitti for what they saw as cowardice and complacency. In rural areas. Land occupations
increased. Socialist power was shown in the 1920 local elections when the party won control of 25 of Italy’s 69 provinces.
39
How could Musso get more support? By changing his Fascist programme.
After his failure in 1919, Mussolini discarded almost the whole of his programme, embracing instead big business, the Church, the landowners and the monarchy, while holding out carrots to the working classes with talk of employers and workers’ unions
cooperating to the govern the country. Posing as bitter opponents of socialism, Fascists began to win support in north and central Italy. Many Fascist recruits were farmers who feared collectivisation of
their land. Others were ex-soldiers who disliked the fact that Italy seemed to be falling into the hands of the Socialist revolutionaries who had done their best to sabotage the war effort.
40
Rise in fascism 1919-1922
.
41
Bienno Rossa - the threat of socialism.
1919-1920 were named as the two red years. This is where there was the most strikes and unrest and the fear of a socialist revolution was the biggest. This fear pushed many to support the emerging Fascists.
42
What was the threat?
-In 1919, 32% of the votes in the election went to the socialists, which horrified the middle classes.
-The liberals did little to pacify the workers appealing for better wages and working hours.
-September 1020 - half a million workers in Turin and Milan responded to lockout threat by occupying 300 factories and running them for a month without the bourgeoisie.
-Giolitti was always too scared to use force against the workers on strikes, as in 1920 when 400,000 workers occupied the factories.
-Occupations weren't successful, but weakened the position of the govt in the public eye.
43
Mussolini’s control over Fascist Squadrismo
Local Fascist leaders like Italo Balbo built up their own power base.
-Mussolini was not behind this Fascist violence but he soon realised the political opportunities the Fascist squads offered.
-He strove to put himself at the forefront of this squadrismo by reasserting his claim to be the sole and undisputed leader of the movement.
-The Ras (local Fascist leaders) were reluctant at first, but he convinced them that their success depended on his leadership.
44
Electoral breakthrough : May 1921
-Giolitti saw fascism as just another political force that could be absorbed into the Liberal system. Mussolini did his best to encourage this belief.
-Giolitti offered an electoral alliance that he hoped would produce an anti-Socialist governing coalition.
-Fascists and Giolittian Liberals co-operated during the general election held in May 1921.
-Fascist squads continued with their violence about 100 Socialist sympathisers killed.
45
How did Mussolini become PM in 1922? (new topic area)
The elections had given Mussolini what he wanted: an air of respectability and a foothold in parliament. He had no wish to be absorbed into liberalism, to be a junior partner in a coalition, as Giolitti had intended. Consequently, he announced that the Fascists would not, after all, support Giolitti’s government.
46
...pt2
Mussolini now saw the possibility of achieving real power. He had no master plan but he was an extremely astute politician. He knew that he needed to demonstrate to the Italian public, to industrialists, to landowners and the middle classes in particular, that liberalist was finished as a political movement. Unstable, short-lived governments unable to maintain law and order or deal with the country’s economic problems would provide proof of this. Mussolini also had to convince these crucial groups in society that only fascism could stop the Socialists and restore order and discipline to Italian society. Furthermore, he realised that for fascism to become acceptable to the middle classes and conservatives it must either abandon or play down any remaining ideas about radical economic and social reform. During 1921
and 1923 Mussolini skilfully took advantage of his opportunities to create such an impression.
47
Government instability
-Governments following the elections of May 1921 were unstable. Giolitti did manage to form a coalition without Mussolini but it collapsed within a month.
-To make matters worse, the Liberals were divided among themselves.
-Three Italian governments between May 1921 and October 1922.
-Fragile and unable to introduce the decisive measures needed to cope with the industrial disruption and the collapse of law and order.
48
The collapse of law and order
-The progressive collapse of law and order owed a great deal to Fascist actions.
-Squadrismo continued through 1921.
-Socialists were attacked, and not infrequently killed.
-Fascist violence even extended to parliament itself, most notoriously on the occasion when a Socialist deputy was beaten up on the floor of the chamber.
49
Mussolini increases his control over the Fascist movement
-Mussolini’s activities during the remainder of 1921 were directed towards making fascism a
cohesive political force that could command more widespread support within Italian society.
-His attempt to organise fascism more effectively results in the establishment of the National Fascist
Party in October 1921.
-Fascism was no longer just a movement, but a recognised political party.
-In the following month the party congress formally accepted Mussolini as the leader of the newly
formed party.
50
...pt2
-The Fascist Party was to be organised and run by men from Mussolini’s own Milan faction, who
were loyal to their leader.
-Mussolini had established more control over those Fascist squads that had so terrorised Socialists in
the agricultural areas of Emilia and the Romagna.
-However, the control over this provincial fascism was by no means total, and there would be
disagreements over the means to secure power. Yet he could now pose as the unchallenged head
of a real political party.
51
Reassuring the Catholic church and conservative liberals.
-In November 1921 Mussolini made a direct attempt to win over Catholics.
-Mussolini also increased his efforts to appeal to conservatives: people who feared socialism,
deplored the government’s conciliatory policy towards workers and questioned its ability to restore order.
-He dropped the more socialist sounding policies espoused by fascism in 1919. In fact, the leader of
fascism had begun to distance himself from such radical ideas during 1920, and it had not been
coincidental that the 35 Fascist deputies elected in May 1921 were on the right of the movement.
52
...pt2
-From 1921 Mussolini’s speeches concentrated on what fascism was against, namely socialism and
liberalism, but spelled out Fascist policies only in very broad terms, stressing its patriotism and
commitment to strong government.
-Such speeches were quite deliberate attempts to persuade the conservative classes that they had
nothing to fear and much gain from the victory of fascism. They also reflected fascism’s lack of
specific, detailed policies. Mussolini wanted a strong, expansionist Italy, hated socialism and
democracy, and despised parliament, but he was principally concerned with winning power for
himself and becoming dictator if Italy. Policy was completely subordinated to this end. In fact, it was
advantageous to have little clear policy – no groups would be offended.
53
Fascist violence
-On the one hand, he encouraged the squads to continue their campaign of violence and suggested that he agreed with their plans for a violent seizure of power. On the other hand, when talking to conservatives, he disassociated himself from the worst excesses of Fascist violence.
54
General strike
At the end of July the Socialist trade unions called a general strike in an attempt to force the government to act against the Fascists. Mussolini made brilliant use of this opportunity to demonstrate that the left was still a threat and that only fascism could deal with it. As soon as the general strike was announced, he publicly declared that if the government did not stop the industrial action his Fascists would step in and do it for
them. Almost as the strike began, Fascists took over the running of public transport and ensured that the postal system continued to function. If strikers protested they were beaten.
55
...pt2
The general strike was a fiasco for the left. It had been poorly organised, and only attracted partial support from the workers. Even in those cities where the strike call was obeyed, the Fascist action limited its effect. Within days the strike had collapsed, leaving the Socialists in disarray. Mussolini could present his Fascists as the sole defenders of law and order. This was a crucial development. The Fascists actions impressed the
conservative middle classes, helping to convince them that fascism could be trusted with a share in government. From this point on the question was not whether the Fascists would enter the government, but rather on what terms.
56
March on Rome (1922)
-Talked to Liberals as well as squads about the coup.
-Plans for seizure of northern and central towns and cities.
-27th October fascist squads began seizing town halls. 30,000 fascists involved.
-Victor Emmanuel II refused Facta's demands for martial law. Reasons- pro-fascist, liked patriotism and natioanlism : feared civil war; VE lacked confidence in govt; overestimated number of fascists on march.
-Facta resigned; Salandra unable to form govt with Musso.
-29th October, Musso became PM.
57
How did Musso consolidate his power and become a dictator? (new topic)
As the new PM, Mussolini was in a relatively weak
position in October 1922. The PNF (National Fascist
Party) had only 35 deputies in the 535 member
Chamber and just four ministers in the 14-strong
Cabinet.
By 1926, however, Mussolini had succeeded in
creating his so-called ‘regime of champions’ – a
personal dictatorship based on one party rule
58
The fascist consolidation of power 1922-1926.
.
59
Fascist grand council - december 1922
This was declared to be the supreme decision making body within the Fascist party. It could discuss proposals for government action, but Mussolini insisted on sole power over appointments to his council. In effect, he was attempting to establish total control over fascist policy-making.
Private army of 30,000 men.
60
Support from powerful groups.
-Decision not to attack widespread tax evasion
convinced industrialists.
-By early 1923 – support of Confindustria (powerful, conservative organisation).
-Gain support from the church (RE compulsory, ban
contraception). Pope withdraw support from PPI.
-Support from Liberals, conservatives, church and
business – believed Mussolini could be controlled
and stop the power of socialists.
61
Electoral reform
-Felt he had enough support for electoral reform.
-Acerbo Law – Party with most votes should get
two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies..
-Claimed - No more weak coalition governments.
-But didn’t point out that it would be very difficult to vote Fascists out of power.
-Fascists squad could use violence against opposition voters. As minister of the interior, he could instruct the police to stand aside.
-Promoted Fascist sympathisers so election could be fixed.
-Acerbo Law passed in July 1923.
62
1924 election
Acerbo law put into practice.
66% of votes.
Fascist MPs from 35 to 374.
Grown in popularity, blackshirt violence,
ballot-rigging.
Despite intimidation – Socialists and Communists –
2.5 million votes.
Two major cities – Milan and Turin – both failed to
produce a Fascist majority.
63
The creation of the anti-fascist dictatorship 1924-1928
.
64
What is a dictator?
It now seemed that Mussolini had control of parliament, but he still did not possess the powers of a dictator. Parliament was still needed to approve laws, opposition parties still existed and the King could still sack his prime minister. It was unclear whether Mussolini would try to establish a dictatorship or how he would do it. in the event, the murder of a prominent opponent would threaten Mussolini’s very survival but also pave the way to a Fascist dictatorship.
65
The Matteotti crisis - June 1924-Jan 1925
What happened? On 30th May 1924, Matteotti stood up in the Italian Chamber of Deputies. Outraged by Fascist violence in recent elections he had prepared a 30-minute speech calling for the cancelling of election results.
-Within moments he was interrupted by Fascist
Deputies – determined to stop him.
-Matteotti continued – it took him 2 hours to complete his speech knowing he would be punished.
-As he left he said to colleagues “Now you can
prepare my funeral oration”
66
...pt2
He was killed and found 23km from Rome, wherein they traced the body back to a fascist squad member, meaning he must have been ordered by none other than the dictator, Mussolini.
67
Why was this a crisis for Mussolini?
-The murder threatened to topple Mussolini from
power.
-There was a widespread belief that Mussolini was
involved in the murder.
-Fierce criticism came from the press, people tore
up Fascist membership cards, and Communists
called from a General Strike.
-Mussolini needed to decide whether to control a
terrorist regime that removed all opposition with
violence, or to operate within the law.
68
How did Mussolini respond to the crisis?
-Mussolini was initially unsure what to do – he was
crippled by depression and severe ulcers.
-Most politicians walked out of Parliament –
Aventine Secession. They met elsewhere and
declared themselves to be the true
representatives of the Italian people. – they expected the King to dismiss Mussolini.
-King Victor Emmanuel wanted others to take the
lead – but opponents were divided (many in the
elite still considered Mussolini’s government the
best)
69
What did he do to respond?
-Mussolini’s first response was a policy that
combined repression and concession. Repression =
The militia was mobilised and tighter controls
were imposed on the press.
-Concession = Militia was integrated into the
armed forces with a new loyalty oath to the King.
Suspects, including Rossi, were sacked.
70
What did he do? pt2
-Criticism from opponents mounted when new
evidence emerged implicating Mussolini in Fascist
violence – still the King refused to act.
-Mussolini was under pressure from his own party
– Fascist radicals feared that if Mussolini lost
power, their chances of a revolution would
disappear.
-The Ras (agricultural Fascist leaders) pressured
Mussolini to act – they wanted to set up a
Fascist dictatorship and smash the Liberal state
(This convinced Mussolini to take action)
71
What did he do? pt3
-On 5th January 1925 Mussolini addressed the
Chamber of Deputies – he took responsibility for
Fascism (though not the murder), and announced he would act within 48 hours to set up a dictatorship.
-The speech was followed by a wave of arrests and
measures against opponents.
-Mussolini was given the power to issue decrees,
which he used to increase government controls.
-A new secret police (the OVRA) was established.
-Other parties were banned and elected councils
were replaced by appointed officials.
-Mussolini established his dictatorship (However,
contrary to the wishes of the Ras, it was a personal
dictatorship rather than a fully Fascist one).
72
Why was the event significant?
-Mussolini survived the Matteotti Crisis due to
both the actions he took, and the limitations of
his opponents.
-Think back to Hitler and the Reichstag Fire – was
Mussolini responsible for the murders?
-The crisis was a turning point – he used it to set
up his dictatorship. Liberal freedoms were now
replaced by a system concentrated on the power
of one man.
73
In summary...
-The Matteotti murder did not lead to a Fascist
dictatorship straight away!
-Matteotti was murdered in June 1924. Mussolini’s
speech was in January 1925. The major formal
decrees were made gradually over two years. The
most important, which gave Mussolini the power to
rule by decree as Head of Government, was not
passed until December 1925.
-Mussolini had been uncertain over how to act.
-Mussolini did not admit direct responsibility for the murder!
74
Mussolini's Italy
Social change, economic change and political change.
75
Mussolini's aims:
Primary aim – secure his position as all-powerful Duce of Italy.
Desire to transform society.
Move from mentality that stressed family, church to place fascism
and nation above these traditions.
Tough, disciplined, obedient to their Duce.
These Fascist policies would lose him some support.
76
Fascism and the Catholic church
Must compromise with church.
Never lost anti-religious attitude. But aware important to millions of It.
Accommodation with the Catholic Church could bring him support.
77
Lateran agreements in 1929
These comprised a treaty and a deal, known as a concordat, which officially ended the dispute about the role and status of the Catholic Church within the Italian state.
78
Fascism and the catholic church - pt2
-Pope agreed to recognise the Fascist party and its possession of the Italian state. In return, recognises Pope’s control of Vatican City and £30 million.
Catholicism as state religion.
-Not removing influence of Catholicism but keeping its support.
79
The lateran pacts - 1929
Church given financial compensation of 750 million Lira.
80
Who benefited most from the concordat?
Mussolini or the church?
81
Mussolini's gains from the concordat
-The church could be portrayed as the regime's ally.
-Regime gained international prestige.
-Appeased to Catholics.
-Catholic youth organisations were dissolved.
82
The church's gains from the concordat
-New Vatican state with sovereign rights.
-Full autonomy.
-Financial gains obviously.
83
Timeline of events.
-Hailed as triumph by Mussolini and the Pope.
-First open dispute in 1931 – government attempted to suppress the Church-sponsored Catholic Action.
-Rival to Fascism’s youth and leisure organisation. (250 000 members).
-Compromise – Catholic Action youth groups banned from political activities, determined to preserve influence over youth.
-Rose to 400,000 in 1939.
-The church declared the Creed of the Fascist Balilla as blasphemous.
84
...pt2
Clear resistance
-Radio Vatican broadcast alternative news and information.
-Relations deteriorated from 1937 to 1938 as Mussolini drew closer to an alliance with Hitler, and the Pope condemned religious persecution in
Germany.
-Fascist anti-Semitism also raised tensions raft of anti-jewish laws.
-Pope Pius XI – By 1939, alliance over. Pope voices regret.
85
Fascism and anti-semitism
.
86
Why did active persecution begin in 1938?
-Relative ease conquering Ethiopia in 1935-36.
-Seemed to confirm superiority.
-Some Fascists start to argue Jewish race is inferior.
-Encouraged by relations with Germany.
-Nazi racial ideas circulated, Mussolini persuaded Jewish influence behind resistance to Fascism.
-Began to see significance that several members of the Italian anti-Fascist group ‘Justice and Liberty’ were Jewish.
-July 1938 – official blessing to claims of Italian anti-semites by publishing the ‘Manifesto of Racial scientists’. Declare Jews do not belong to the Italian race.
87
Anti-semitic policies
August 1938 – Foreign born Jews banned from state schools, following
months ban extended to Italian born Jews.
Jews excluded from teaching, separate Jewish schools to be set up.
In Oct, Grand Council of Fascists declare Jews did not sincerely support the
regime. Excluded from membership of the National Fascist Party.
88
..pt2
November 1938 – forbidden to marry non-Jews. Excluded from posts in
military and banking.
Subject to acts of violence from Fascist squads. 1941, synagogues burned
down.
Anti-semitic laws contained exemptions – served in WW1, served the
regime. Also, govt officials and fascists did not enforce rules.
89
...pt3
When original Fascist regime collapses in July 1943 and was replaced by the Italian Social Republic. Mussolini allowed the treatment to escalate.
Decree of November 1943 ordered the confiscation of Jewish property and the rounding up of all Jews.
Over 7500 Italian Jews sent to Nazi death camps.
90
Fascism and women pt1 (of many)
Traditional attitude towards women.
Wife and mother – encourage women to have children.
Schools emphasised traditional gender roles. Discourage girls from entering higher education.
Wanted to raise population.
91
pt2
Battle for Births – Launched in 1927. designed to increase population from 40 to 50m in 1950. Mussolini – 12 children per family ideal.
Marriage loans. Part of repayment cancelled with each child.
Married man with at least 6 children exempt from tax.
Infant welfare clinics – health care for poor mothers and children.
92
pt3
Propaganda – all good Italians to produce children for the Duce.
Prizes to most prolific mothers.
Penalties introduced for those who did not have children. Taxes increased. Promotions in civil
service only offered to the married with children.
93
pt4
1933 – quota system for public sector, women could only make up 10% of workforce.
Battle for Births failed – rate of marriage remained unchanged – birth rate declined until 1936 and only rose slightly after that.
Rules for employment also had limited success. Still made up significant proportion of workforce.
94
Fascism and the youth
Ensure schools promoted fascism.
First step – influencing teachers – from 1925, could be dismissed for suspect political views. 1929 – teachers take an oath of loyalty to Fascism.
1931 – Fascist Teachers’ Association set up to regulate teachers, membership compulsory by 1937.
Cult of personality promoted – Mussolini’s genius stressed. Portrait in all classrooms. Unpatriotic books banned.
95
Fascist youth movement
Also influence youth in leisure time.
Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) set up in 1926 to organise youth movements and by early 1930s, membership for all children over 8. By 1937, over 7m had joined.
Activities focused on military training and Fascist ideology. Fitness training and sport. Regular parades and summer camps.
University level – GUF (Gruppi Universitari Fascisti).
96
Fascism and leisure time (social life)
Not content to wait for youth to grow up. Influence adults as well.
Tamed at work – banning of trade unions and by other fascist controls.
The Dopolavoro – set up in 1925 – provide leisure activities. Influence workers towards a fascist view of life.
Dopolavoro expanded quickly – controlled all football clubs, 1350 theatres, 2000 drama societies, 3000 brass bands.
97
...pt2
Every town and village had a dopolavoro club house. Membership peaked at 4 million in 1939.
Coercing people into membership was not needed – W/C quick to take advantage of the subsidised sports, entertainments and holidays.
Focus was not on indoctrination but having a good time.
98
Increasing Fascist interference
Dopolavoro was a popular initiative, but other Fascist policies affecting ordinary people lost the fascists support.
In 1937, handshake replaced with Fascist salute.
Attempts to change calendar, year 1 start from 1922.
Fascism condemned women for wearing make-up and even tried to ban them from wearing trousers.
Such rules unenforceable and simply irritated Italians.
99
How far did Mussolini achieve his aims in domestic policy?
-Mussolini constantly portrayed as a genius and hero.
-Italians not always taken in by his propaganda.
-His concordat perhaps one of the only achievements but this began to sour by the late 1930s.
-Outward conformity.
-Many left school at 11 so never experienced the
indoctrination, private and catholic schools carried
on as normal.
-Popular support also declined with older
generations.
100
Economic slogans:
‘World slump not here.’
‘Buy Italian. Italy can provide for all your needs.’
‘Italy: Strong in work, strong in war.’
‘The corporative state, one prosperous united family.’
101
Mussolini's aims :
-Early years – Wanted to hold on to power, therefore adopted economic policies to make his position more secure.
-As the 1920s progressed, Mussolini wanted an economic transformation of Italy. World’s first ‘corporate state’.
-Mid 1930s, priorities changed. Preparation for war! Strive for autarky (self-sufficiency).
102
Impact of fascist policies on Italian industry
.
103
Policies 1922-27
-Reduced state intervention in industry. Kept industrialists happy.
-Taxes levied on industries that had made huge profits.
-Industrialists also pleased that Socialist and Catholic trade unions outlawed.
104
Battle for the Lira
-As the economic boom was coming to an end Mussolini wanted to raise the value of the Italian currency.
-The exchange rate had been slipping to around 150 Lira to the pound.
-It had been 90 Lira to the pound when in 1922.
Mussolini announced the Battle For Lira believing a strong country needed a strong currency. The Lira was revalued at the rate it was in 1922.
105
pros and cons ;
Positives:
Increased Mussolini’s prestige with both Italians and foreign banks. Benefitted armament, steel & ship building businesses
Negatives:
Italian goods became too expensive and export industries went into depression.
Unemployment increased.
106
Corporate state
Every industry would be part of a Fascist-led corporation that would sort out disputes between workers and management, and help to organise production, pay and conditions.
107
Corporate state part two.
Within each sector Fascist trade unions & employers would represent the workers
Would be in charge of pay, working conditions & production in its own industry
Aimed to get workers & employers working together
108
pros and cons ;
Strengths:
Workers allowed to alter working hours & nightshifts without real consultation-more
power. Allowed to have annual paid holidays
Weaknesses:
Workers couldn't choose representatives & conflicts were never fully resolved. Still conflict between employer and employee.
109
Economic depression.
-WSC (1929) caused a global economic depression that Italy did not escape.
-A large number of companies collapsed. Car
production fell by 50%. Unemployment – half a m
in 1928, 2 m by 1933.
-Fascist government stepped in and bailed out
banks.
-These measures did cost the taxpayer a lot of money, but it did help them deal better with the depression than other countries. President Roosevelt copied Il.
Duce’s example.
110
Preparing for war.
-Italy must be prepared for war.
-Armaments industry must be promoted.
-Country must become self-suffient.
-Italy must be an autarky – be able to supply itself with all the food and material needed for war.
-Mussolini encouraged heavy industries such as steel, chemicals and shipbuilding by placing large government contracts.
111
Limitations of autarky.
-Despite efforts, economy far from self-sufficient when the Duce joined WW2 in 1940.
-Key materials like oil and coal for making steel had to be imported.
-Couldn’t match enemies levels of production.
-Spending huge amounts of money.
-Wanted to keep popularity so did not want to put in taxes.
112
Impact of industry on living standards.
Many industrial workers actually suffered a decline in their standards of living after wage cuts.
Falling consumption of meat, fruit and veg showed the impact of
declining incomes.
The middle class far less unlikely to suffer from unemployment.
Lack of improvement in living standards did not concern Mussolini: He
believed it would create harder, tougher Italians.
113
Impact of Fascist policies on Italian agriculture
114
Battle for grain 1925
-aims :
To make Italy more self sufficient
-success:
Grain production was increased. Large scale farms in the North flourished.
-failures :
fruit and veg was neglected. High decline in animal farming. Prices rose and in turn so did living standards due to diet. Italy still depended on foreign imports.
115
Battle for land 1928
-aims:
Create new land for cereal production and impress foreigners.
-success:
new towns were made like Latnia that impressed foreigners.
-failures:
Not much land was actually reclaimed and the south was neglected in particular.
116
Impact of agricultural policy on living standards
Agricultural workers – heavier wage cuts.
Past – escape poverty through emigration. 1900-1920 – 200,000 Italians mainly southerners had emigrated to US each year.
-From 1920. No longer happening. Why?
..Instead, left for towns and cities.
..Mussolini tried to stop this.
..Mussolini only visited Sicily once after 1924 indicating a recognition of his failures towards the south.
117
Mussolini's dictatorship -political
.
118
Key terms
Personal Dictatorship
-Mussolini achieved his ambition of becoming dictator of Italy.
-Parliament was under his full control – he could make all laws by issuing decrees.
-Mussolini’s central goal was to maintain and increase his own personal power.
Cult of Personality
-Created the cult of ‘il Duce’
-The cult was intended to build popular support for the dictator and outdo his potential opponents by stressing his supposed superhuman talents.
119
How did Mussolini use propaganda to build the Cult of Personality and his personal dictatorship?
-Mussolini had gained national attention as the editor of the propagandist newspaper, Il Popolo d’Italia.
-His aim was to use propaganda to build up support for his regime and deter opposition.
-He was keen to control the press so in 1926 opposition newspapers were suppressed, and journalists and their editors were made aware that they would be arrested if they published anything against the regime.
-Mussolini’s press office issued ‘official’ versions of events – newspapers had to publish these without question.
-Radios used as a tool for propaganda – all run by the state.
120
...pt2
-Radios were given to schools.
-In the 1930s, communal radios were sent to the remotest of villages.
-Films were preceded by a short newsreel – providing information on current events.
-‘Mussolini is always right’ became a popular
propagandist phrase – published in all the newspapers.
-The use of ‘Il Duce’ gave the public a false perception of what Mussolini was like e.g. strong and athletic.
121
Cult of the duce.
.
122
How was Mussolini portrayed? (as a statesman)
-Saviour of Italy, sent by God.
-Heir to Julius Ceasar and Augustus.
-All knowing and all wise.
123
(as a man)
-Wise.
-Witty.
-Proactive and paternalistic.
124
What were the effects of this myth?
-Gained massive support.
-Mussolini's personal prestige maintained support in times of difficulty.
125
However,
-Mussolini came to believe in his own image. His propaganda misfired and detached him from reality.
-Mussolini's grew privy to the myth by the time of his death.
126
How totilatarian was fascist Italy?
127
Cencorship
-Anti-fascist propaganda was viewed as treason.
-Journalists were registered with the government.
-Hostile newspapers were shut down.
128
OVRA (secret police)
-Privately operated to the actual police.
-20,000 actions weekly: hundreds of arrests and detentions per week.
-1930s- about 5000 police agents.
-Some victims sent to concentration camps on Lipari islands.
129
Deaths
-About 400 killed by state for political reasons.
-1940-43- 17 political executions.
130
MSVN militia and squads.
-50,000 armed militia which intimidated people.
131
Special tribunal
-Mass imprisonment.
132
The Second World War and the fall of Mussolini
133
Why did the public turn against the state during WW2?
Failure of autarky (economic weakness)
Military defeats
Military unpreparedness
134
Military unpreparedness
-Italy had not been prepared to contributing to a sustained war.
-Money had been invested but inadequate weaponry purchased.
-Small airforce and inferior aircraft, slow and useless in desert.
-800 000 men ready to fight (promise of 8 million bayonets).
-Weapons dated back to WW1.
135
...pt2
-Few heavy tanks mostly armoured cars.
-As WW1, poor leadership and stuck in defensive tactics.
-Mussolini kept power and appointed those who flattered not those while talent or military experience.
136
The failure of Autarky (economic weakness)
-Mussolini’s aim was self sufficiency.
-Despite policy to encourage this Italy was far from self sufficient.
-Wartime production needed coal and iron ore.
-Germany had these resources.
137
...pt2
-As Italian involvement proved a hindrance and the war went wrong for the Axis powers, Germany became less willing to share in these vital resources.
-Military equipment could not be replaced.
-Food production fell.
-Wheat harvest dropped 1.5 million tonnes as peasant farmers drafted into the army.
138
Military defeats
-Italian forces launched an attack against the British in Africa and another simultaneous attack in the Balkans.
-Impact?
-Not enough forces to deal with offensives in two fronts.
-Suffered defeats in both areas with losses of half the navy and high casualties.
-Also had to accept German commander Rommel as head of Axis troops in Africa.
-Sent troops to assist Germany in Russia but only 20000 poorly equipped men.
139
...pt2
-Impact?
-Italy was no longer a junior partner but totally dependent on Germany.
-Good if the Axis powers won the war but if Germany was defeated the Italy would go down with them.
140
The Fall of Benito Mussolini (loss of
support)
141
Public - civilian disillusionment
-High casualties.
-Food shortages – British blockade in Med, general goods like soap unavailable.
-Rationing introduced 1941.
142
Military disillusionment
-Lack of military preparation and equipment.
-High casualties.
-Only 6 months into the war and people were ‘sick of the conflict’.
-Opposition groups from Catholic to Communist emerged.
143
The Dismissal of Mussolini July 1943
-Course of WW2 and the fall of Sicily.
-Italy could either fight on beside Germany or consider leaving the Axis and negotiating peace with the Allies.
-Ciano and Grandi favoured this option.
-Farinacci instrumental in calling the Grand Council. – had not met since 1939
144
...pt2
-The Fascist Grand Council voted 19-7 on the night
24/25 July that the King restore all powers to
Parliament, ministers and the Grand Council that
Mussolini had taken away.
-25th July – King Victor Emmuanuel told Mussolini “you are the most hated man in Italy.” The Duce was arrested.
145
Impact of Mussolini’s sacking
-Marshall Badoglio was appointed the new PM.
-An armistice with the USA and GB was
arranged in September 1943 but Italy was not at peace.
-Germany could not afford to lose this territory and occupied north and central Italy.
-Southern Italy was occupied by the allies.
146
Mussolini’s escape!
-Imprisoned in the Appenine mountains Hitler ordered his rescue.
-Mussolini was freed from his Italian captors and taken to Germany to meet Hitler – quote.
-Mussolini now set up the Italian Social Republic – Salo Republic.
-BUT – sponsored by Germany and only controlled a tiny part north of Italy.
147
...pt2
-Ironically the Salo Republc was rebuked by those who first embraced Fascism – conservative groups,
industrialist, the church.
-Only radical, pro German Fascists like Farinacci
supported Mussolini.
148
The Salo Republic
-Lacked a capital city, No structured government, No army, Little support.
-But had:
Violent militia, Taste for revenge – Ciano, Extortion, Ability to ruthlessly murder opponents
-Impact?
Brought about structured opposition to the new republic who turned on the state and north Italy erupted into a violent civil war from 1943-45.
149
Death of Mussolini
During 1943-44, British forces slowly pushed their forces northwards.
By the beginning of 1945 the Nazi forces in Italy were in full retreat towards the Austrian border.
Mussolini surrounded by a dwindling band of supporters tried to flee.
On 25 April he joined a group of German soldiers heading for Austria and disguised himself in a German uniform.
At Dongo at Lake Garda the group was stopped by Italian Communist partisans.
The Duce was recognised. He and his mistress Clara Petacci were executed 28 April.
As the war ended, there were revenge killings and executions. In June 1945, various anti-Fascist groups set up the first free government since 1922.
150
How effective was resistance and opposition in Fascist Italy?
151
How popular was Mussolini?
After 1924 the ban on political activity outside the Fascist Party, together with press censorship, denied opponents a platform for their views. Those who opposed Mussolini were likely to be spied
upon by the OVRA.
The lack of significant opposition in part a reflection of the strength of the repressive measures, but also proof of Mussolini’s ability to
manipulate opinion.
People who may oppose regime – rewarded.
Used propaganda
