AS research methods Flashcards
1
Q
what is the independent variable?
A
the variable that the researcher manipulates.
may be divided into levels, sometimes referred to as experimental conditions
to provide a standard against which experimental conditions can be compared there may be a control condition where the IV is not manipulated at all
2
Q
what is the dependent variable?
A
the variable that is being measured. the IV and the DV should be operationalised.
3
Q
what is operationalisation?
A
defining the variables in such a way as to make them measurable
4
Q
what are extraneous variables?
A
any variables (other than the IV) that COULD affect the DV (eg. participant intelligence)
5
Q
what are confounding variables?
A
any variables (other than the IV) that HAVE affected the DV
6
Q
laboratory experiments are carried out….?
A
in a controlled environment, allowing the researcher to exert a high level of control over the IV and eliminate any EV. the researcher can then measure the change in the DV caused by their manipulation of the IV. participants are randomly allocated to a condition. this means neither the experimenter nor the participant decides which condition the participant is placed in, an unpredictable method is used to decide.
7
Q
3 advantages of laboratory experiments?
A
- high level of control possible means that it is easy to control for any EV and prevent them from becoming CV
- Because the researcher can manipulate the IV they can establish a cause and effect relationship between the IV and the DV
- A well-controlled laboratory experiment can be easily replicated. if the findings are similar to the original study than the results are reliable
8
Q
2 disadvantages of laboratory experiments?
A
- strong chance of demand characteristics, this is a type of EV
- by establishing a high level of control over the IV and EV the experimental situation can lack mundane realism. this means the study does not have ecological validity
9
Q
what is mundane realism?
A
the extent to which the experiment procedure reflects real life
10
Q
what is ecological validity?
A
the ability to generalise the findings of research to the real world
11
Q
field experiments are carried out…?
A
in the real world. the IV is manipulated by the researcher to see the effect on the DV
12
Q
3 advantages of field experiments?
A
- more mundane realism and ecological validity than in a laboratory
- because the researcher can manipulate the IV a cause and effect relationship between the IV and the DV can be established
- less chance of demand characteristics because the participants might not even know that they are taking part in research
13
Q
3 disadvantages of field experiments?
A
- much less control over EV and so the effect on the DV may not be caused by the IV but by these EV. this means the research is not valid (it is not measuring what it intends to measure)
- there is less control over the sample
- may be far more difficult to replicate
14
Q
what is the sample?
A
people who are taking part in the experiment
15
Q
In a natural experiment…?
A
the researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring IV to see its effect of the DV
16
Q
2 advantages of natural experiments?
A
- high level of mundane realism and ecological validity
2. very useful when it is impossible or unethical to manipulate the IV/sample in a laboratory or field experiment
17
Q
3 disadvantages of natural experiments?
A
- less control over EV
- difficult to replicate
- far more difficult to determine cause and effect
18
Q
quasi experiments contain..?
A
a naturally occuring IV that is a difference between people that already exists (eg, gender or age). the researcher examines the effect of this variable on the DV
(has same limitations of natural)
19
Q
what is an observation?
A
when a researcher watches or listens to participants engaging in the behaviour that is being studied
20
Q
what is a non participant observation?
A
when the researcher does not get directly involved with the interactions of the participants.
21
Q
what is a participant observation?
A
when the researcher is directly involved with the interactions of the participants
22
Q
what is a covert observation
A
when the psychologist goes undercover and does not reveal their true identity, they may even give himself or herself a new identity. the group does not know that they are being observed
23
Q
what is an overt observation?
A
the researcher watches and records the behaviour of a group that knows it is being observed by a psychologist.
observer effects can occur as participants may change their behaviour when they know they are being observed, meaning the results are not valid.
24
Q
what is a naturalistic observation?
A
when a researcher observes participants in their own environment and there is no deliberate manipulation of the independent variable.
25
what are the advantages of naturalistic observation?
1. participants are usually unaware that they are being observed (covert observation) so there is a reduced chance of observer effects
2. studies have high mundane realism and ecological validity
3. useful when the deliberate manipulation of variables would be impractical or unethical
26
what are the disadvantages of naturalistic observation?
1. impossible to have any control over extraneous variables
2. problematic to try to determine the cause of a behaviour
3. risk of observer bias. occurs when the observers know the aims of the study, or the hypotheses, and this knowledge influences their observations
27
what is a controlled observation?
researcher observes participants in a controlled environment and this allows for manipulation of the independent variable.
28
what are the advantages of controlled observation?
1. cause and effect can be determined
2. extraneous variables can be controlled for
3. rich and complex information is obtained
29
what are the disadvantages of controlled observation?
1. lower mundane realism and ecological validity
2. observer effects could occur as participants usually know they are being observed (overt observation)
3. there is a risk of observer bias
30
what is a self report?
when participants provide details of their own feelings, thoughts and/or behaviour to the researcher
31
what is a structured interview?
when all participants are asked the same questions in the same order
this provides quantitative data, which is data that can be counted or expressed numerically
32
what is an unstructured interview?
an informal in-depth conversational exchange between the interviewer and interviews.
provides qualitative data, non-numerical data that uses words to give a description of what people think/feel
33
what is a semi structured interview?
combines a mixture of structured and unstructured techniques (quantitative and qualitative data)
34
what are the advantages of interviews?
1. complicated or sensitive issues are best dealt with in an interview.
2. if participants misunderstand a question this can be clarified
35
what are the disadvantages of interviews?
1. risk of interviewer effects. this can be unintentional and may even be a result of the interviewer’s appearance, manner or gender
2. there is also a risk of social desirability bias. this is when people lie to present themselves in a positive light. this would mean the data lacks validity
3. training is needed for interviewers and the process can be time consuming and expensive.
36
what are questionnaires
participants are given a written set of questions and instructions about how to record their answers.
questionnaires mainly focus on the individual’s behaviour, opinions, beliefs and attitudes.
37
what are closed questions?
-require participants to answer yes/no or choose from fixed responses (quantitative data)
researchers are able to collate and display the information collected easily
make it easy to compare specific response to questions the researchers wanted answered
38
what are open questions?
- allows the participant to answer in their own words (qualitative data)
- allows respondents to interpret the question as they wish to and develop their response with detail or depth
- allows the researchers to pursue a line of enquiry that they may not have predicted but which comes to light because of a response by an interviewee
39
what are the advantages of questionnaires?
1. it is possible to collect a large amount of data relatively quickly and conveniently
2. easy to score/collate when the questions are closed
3. questionnaires are standardised so it is easy to replicate.
40
what are the disadvantages of questionnaires
1. participants may misunderstand the questions and the researcher is not there to clarify
2. can have a low response rate
3. can have a biased sample as they are only suitable for people who can read and are willing and able to spend the time on them. certain types of people would be more willing to fill in questionnaires and so the sample may not be representative of the target population
41
what is a correlation?
a technique for analysing the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, known in correlation as co-variables
42
what’s a positive correlation?
as one variable increases the other variable increases as well
43
what’s a negative correlation?
as one variable increases the other variable decreases.
44
the strength of a correlation is rated between...?
-1 and 1
0 - no correlation
-1 -strong negative correlation
1 - strong positive correlation
45
what is the correlation coefficient?
the strength of the correlation
46
what are the advantages of correlation?
1. allows psychologists to establish the strength of the relationship between two variables and measure it precisely
2. once a correlation has been conducted predictions can be made about one of the variables based on what is known about the other variable
3. allows researchers to investigate things that could not be manipulated experimentally for ethical or practical reasons
47
what are the disadvantages of correlation?
1. cannot demonstrate cause and effect; we cannot tell which variable influences the other
2. may be the case that the variables are not actually related but that there is a third unknown variable which influences both
3. can only measure linear relationships and does not detect curvilinear relationships. this is when there is a positive relationship up to a certain point but after that, the relationship becomes negative
48
an experiment isolates and manipulates....?
the independent variable to observe its effect on the dependent variable, and controls the environment in order that extraneous variables may be eliminated.
experiments establish cause and effect.
49
a correlation identifies...?
variables and looks for a relationship between them.
an experiment tests the effect that an independent variable has upon a dependent variable but a correlation looks for a relationship between two variables.
50
what can experiments and correlations each predict?
experiment can predict cause and effect (causation)
| correlation can only predict a relationship, as another extraneous variable may be involved that it not known about
51
what is an aim?
a precise statement about the purpose of the study and what it intends to find out
aim should include what is being studied and what the study is trying to achieve.
52
what’s a hypotheses?
a specific, testable statement about the expected outcome of a study
hypothesis should also be operationalised
first part of it that needs addressing is whether or not the study predicts causation and correlation
53
what is operationalising?
defining variables in such a way as to make them measurable (IV and DV)
54
what’s a causation?
the researcher predicts a difference in the dependant variable because of the manipulation of an independent variable
55
what’s a null hypothesis
states that the IV will have no effect on the DV
56
what’s an alternative hypothesis?
predicts that the IV will have an effect on the DV
57
what’s a non directional hypothesis?
DOES NOT state the direction of the predicted differences between conditions
58
what’s a directional hypothesis?
DOES state the direction of the predicted differences between conditions
59
decision to use directional or non directional hypothesis is based on...?
whether there is previous research in the field
if there is, we use directional, if not, we use non-directional
this is because previous research will enable us to predict which direction the results are likely to go in
60
what are pilot studies?
small-scale investigations conducted before research.
61
why are pilot studies useful?
they can help to identify whether there needs to be any modifications in the design of the planned study
helps to determine whether it would be feasible and worthwhile to conduct a full-scale study
62
what is a target population?
the group who researchers are studying and want to generalise their results to
63
what are sampling techniques used for?
to obtain a sample of the target population
64
why should a sample be representative of the population?
so that the findings of the study can be generalised to the target population
65
what is random sampling?
when every member of the target population has the same chance of being selected
- easiest way to do this is to place all names from the target population in a hat and draw out the sample required
66
what is the evaluation of random sampling?
+ sample is likely to be representative and therefore results can be generalised to the target population
- sometimes difficult to get full details of a target population from which to select a sample
- not all members of the target population who are selected to take part will be available or willing to take part, making the sample unrepresentative
67
what is systematic sampling?
a sampling strategy where participants are selected by taking every Nth person from a list
68
what is the evaluation of systematic sampling?
+ far simpler than random sampling
- process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within the target population
if the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the trait, the sampling technique will no longer be representative
69
what is stratified sampling?
classifying the target population into categories and then randomly choosing a sample that consists of participants from each category in the same proportions as they appear in the target population
70
what is the evaluation of stratified sampling?
+ all groups within a target population are included, therefore the sample should be representative of the target population
- very time consuming as the categories have to be identified and calculated
if you do not have details of all the people in your target population you would struggle to conduct a stratified sample
71
what is opportunity sampling?
selecting participants who are readily available and willing to take part
72
what is the evaluation of opportunity sampling?
+ easiest and most practical method of ensuring large samples
- high chance that the sample will not be representative of the target population
sometimes people feel obliged to take part in research even when they do not really want to, this is unethical
73
what is volunteer sampling?
involves people self-selecting to participate in a study.
| the researcher will usually advertise for people to take part in their research
74
what is the evaluation of volunteer sampling?
+ useful way of finding specific people to take part in particular areas of research
- certain type of person tends to volunteer for research and this means that there is a very high chance that the sample obtained will be unrepresentative (volunteer bias)
75
what are operationalised behaviour categories?
the specific and observable behaviours to be recorded during an observation. they represent the more general construct under investigation
76
what is observer bias?
when the observer knows the aims of the study, or hypotheses, and this knowledge influences their observations
77
how does a study have inter-observer reliability?
use two observers who agree beforehand on their interpretation of the behavioural categories.
observers record independently
recordings will be correlated using statistical tests
if the two observers agree, the study has inter observer reliability
78
how does a study have intra-observer reliability?
when the observation is video recorded so that it can be watched several times
79
what is event sampling?
recording every time a certain behaviour occurs on a target
80
what is time sampling?
recording all behaviours within a given time frame
81
what is needed to construct a good questionnaire?
- clarity
- bias
- analysis
- filler questions
- sequences of questions
- sampling technique (usually stratified)
- pilot study
82
how do you record an interview?
- written notes, but can likely interfere with listening skills
- if researcher does not write smth down, person may feel like what they said isn’t valuable
- also could be audio or video recorded
83
what are the effects of the interviewer?
- presence of an interviewer who is interested in the respondents answers may increase amount of info provided
- interviewers need to be aware of their non verbal communication and their listening skills
84
what is informed consent?
- explain the general purpose of the study and what it involves
- pps should be assured that their data will be kept confidential
- should be informed they will get full debriefing
- Clear that:-no pressure to consent,-right to withdraw,-right to withdraw data
85
which association publishes a code of ethics?
british psychological society (BPS)
86
What is protection from harm?
- Protection from psychological/physical harm
- Risk of harm is no greater than ordinary life
- study stopped if harm is suspected
- participants leave as they came in (same condition)
87
What is right to withdraw?
- Leave at any time (hard to do in covert)
- withdraw data at any point in future
- must be reminded of RTW if appeared distressed
88
What is confidentiality?
(Always unless agreed in advance that it isn’t confidential)
| Data can be traced back to name
89
What is the difference between confidentiality and anonymity?
- Data can be traced back to name (C)
| - data can’t be traced back as names were not given (A)
90
What is meant by avoid deception?
-Avoid with holding information
-participants shouldn’t be deliberately misled without justification
Ethics committee must approve it
-cost benefit analysis (benefits outweigh the costs)
-Participants must be informed by deception was used
91
What is the briefing?
Study, aims and other information is shared
Must check welfare and be reminded of right to withdraw and to confidentiality
-does not justify unethical aspects of research
92
What is independent groups?
Different participants in each condition
| Random allocation
93
What are the advantages of independent groups?
+ order effects won’t happen(Sequence in which participants take part influence performance)
+ saves time, groups can be tested at the same time
+ demand characteristics are reduced
94
What are the disadvantages of independent groups?
- More participants needed
| - different results could be due to participant variables rather than IV
95
What is repeated measures?
Each participant was tested in all conditions of the experiment
96
What are the advantages of repeated measures?
+ no participant variables
| + half as many participants needed than in independent groups
97
What are the disadvantages of repeated measures?
-Order effects may happen
(Counter-blocking:Order of conditions is different for half so it helps control impact of order effects)
-Demand characteristics
-takes time especially if gap is needed between conditions
98
What is matched pairs?
Different participants in all conditions
The participants into groups are matched on characteristics
(identical twins)
99
What are the advantages of matched pairs?
+ less risk of order effects
+ less risk of demand characteristics
+ participant variables unlikely
100
What are the disadvantages of matched pairs?
- Twice as many participants needed
- matching process is difficult
- matching process is time-consuming
101
Why must extraneous variables be controlled?
To stop them becoming cofounding
102
What are participant variables?
Characteristics that may affect the DV
103
How are participant variables avoided?
Matched pairs and repeated measures
| Repeated measures can lead to order effects but counter balancing should be used to avoid this
104
Why is random allocation used and when can it not be used?
It is used to make sure there is no bias (in independent groups)
Can’t be used in a quasi-experiment
105
What are environmental variables?
Factors in the environment that could affect the DV
106
What is standardisation used for?
To make sure conditions are the same for all participants
107
When do you investigator effects happen?
When the person collecting the data is aware of aim
108
What is the double blind technique?
| ...what is it used for?
Hypothesis and participants are unknown to both the participants and the investigator
Used to avoid investigator effects
109
What are standardised scripts used for?
To make sure investigate to act similarly with all participants
110
What is demand characteristics?
Purpose of study is guest:
- behaviour may change to please or to be right
- makers screw you affect
- social desirability bias
111
How can you overcome the demand characteristics?
Single-blind technique:
| Participants don’t know the hypothesis or condition (hard when using repeated measures design)
