forensics Flashcards
1
Q
what is offender profiling
A
- tool employed by the police to narrow down the list of likely suspects.
- finds the probable characteristics of the offender
2
Q
what if offender profiling based on
A
the idea that the characteristics of the offender can be deduced from the details of the offence and crime scene.
3
Q
what does offender profiling include? (method)
A
- careful scrutiny of crime scene
- analysis of evidence
- witness reports
4
Q
what are the two types of offender (according to the top down approach)
A
organised and disorganised
5
Q
what are organised offenders
A
offenders that show evidence of having planned the crime in advance
- tend to have high iq, socially and sexually competent
- often married with children
6
Q
how does an organised offender attack
A
- usually has preference for type of victim
- maintain high level of control
- operates with detached surgical precision
- little evidence left at crime scene
7
Q
what is a disorganised offender
A
offenders that show little evidence of planning suggesting the offence may have been spontaneous
- tends to have low iq, unemployed, history of sexual dysfunction or failed relationships
- tend to live alone and live close to the offence
8
Q
how does a disorganised offender attack
A
- body is left at scene
- little control from the offender
9
Q
what is the top down approach
A
when evidence from the crime scene and other details of the crime are used to fit the offender into the categories of disorganised or organised
10
Q
what is the evaluation for top down approach
A
- only applied to certain crimes. common offences (burglary) do not work bc crime scene reveals little about offender
- top down was made from interviews with 36 sexually motivated killers. CANTER argued it is not valid to rely on self report data
- organised or disorganised is overly simplistic. HOLMES suggests 4 types: visionary (god/devil is directing them), mission (eradicate people), hedonistic (thrill), power (complete control) serial killers
- unrepresentative,sample too small and only on serial killers
11
Q
what is the bottom up approach
A
using statistics and a database to generate a picture of the offender and their likely characteristics
12
Q
how does the bottom up approach work (method)
A
- systematic analysis of evidence left at the crime scene
- profile is data driven and profilers engages in rigorous scrutiny of the details of the offence
13
Q
what is the aim of investigative psychology
A
to establish behaviours that are likely to occur at certain crime scenes.
creates statistical database which acts as a baseline for comparison
14
Q
how does investigative psychology work (method)
A
- specific details of offence are matched against a database
- that reveals statistically probable details about the offender
- determines whether multiple offences are linked
15
Q
what is interpersonal coherence
A
the way in which an offender behaves at the crime scene, including how they interact with the victim reflects their behaviour in everyday situations
16
Q
how does interpersonal coherence help investigative psychology
A
- offender’s behaviour at crime scene may reflect their behaviour in everyday situations.
- the significance of time and place of the crime is also a key variable and may indicate where offender lives
17
Q
what is forensic awareness
A
when individuals make an attempt to ‘cover their tracks’.
-indicates that they have been subject to police interrogation before/police have their dna or fingerprints on file
18
Q
what is geographical profiling
A
the study of spatial behaviour in relation to crime and offenders
19
Q
how does crime mapping work
A
- plot the areas of the crimes on a map
- draw a circle around all the crimes
- attacker should theoretically live in the centre of it
20
Q
how does geographical profiling work?
A
- focuses on location of the crime as a clue to where offender lives
- relevant data includes crime scene, local statistics, local transport and geographical spread of similar crimes
21
Q
what does geographical profiling assume
A
- offender will restrict criminal activity to an area they are familiar with
- earliest crimes are likely to be closer to the offenders base than later crimes
- as offender becomes confident they will travel further from comfort zone
22
Q
what are the two models of offender behaviour (canter, larkin)
A
- MARAUDER (operates close to their home)
- COMMUTER (likely to have travelled a distance away from their home)
23
Q
what are the strengths of the bottom up approach
A
+CANTER argues that bottom up profiling is more scientific than top down bc it is more grounded in evidence and psychological theory
+can be applied to a wide variety of offences, such as as burglary/murder/rape
24
Q
what are the limitations of the bottom up approach
A
- 21 yo Rachel Nickell was stabbed 47 times and sexually assaulted in a frenzied attack on Wimbledon Common. In 2008, following examination of forensic evidence, Robert Napper was convicted of the murder. He had been ruled out early on in the initial investigation because he was several inches taller than the profile had claimed the offender would be.
- chemistry students produced a more accurate offender profile than experienced senior detectives. This implies that the bottom-up approach is little more than common sense and guess work.
25
what is the historical/atavistic approach to offending?
Lombroso suggested that criminals were genetic throwbacks, a primitive sub species who were biologically different from non criminals.
their savage and untamed nature meant that they would inevitably turn to crime
26
what does atavistic mean
reversion to something ancestral
27
how can criminal sub species be identified by (lombroso/atavistic form)
particular set of physical characteristics, mainly the face and head
28
what characteristics did the atavistic form include
narrow, sloping brow, a strong prominent jaw, high cheekbones and facial asymmetry.
dark skin and extra:toes, nipples or fingers
insensitivity to pain, use of criminal slang, tattoos and unemployment
29
what are the atavistic characteristics of murderers
bloodshot eyes, curly hair, long ears
30
what are the atavistic characteristics of sexual deviants
glinting eyes, swollen/fleshy lips and projecting ears
31
what are the atavistic characteristics of fraudsters
thin and ‘reedy’ lips
32
describe lombrosos study on atavistic characteristics
- examined facial and cranial features of italian convicts
- 383 dead criminals, 3839 living ones
- concluded her 40% of criminal acts could be accounted for by criminal subculture
33
what is the strength of atavistic form
+had important role in the shift away from theories based on feeble mindedness, wickedness and demonic possession
+was the forerunner to more biological explanations
34
what are the limitations of atavistic form
- racist undertones. majority of the features are found in people of african descent. his claims that the characteristics were uncivilised and primitive supporter the eugenic philosophy
- GORING compared 3000 criminals to 3000 non and concluded there were no particular cranial characteristics. he found that criminals are more likely to have below average IQ
- no control group
- characteristics can be affected by external factors such as poverty and poor diet
35
explain how criminal behaviour could be polygenic
no one single gene is responsible for offending.
36
what are candidate genes (in terms of criminal behaviour)
multiple genes that may be responsible for causing criminal behaviour
37
what does the MAOA gene do
controls dopamine and serotonin in the brain and has been linked to aggressive behaviour
38
what is the CDH13 gene linked to
substance abuse and attention deficit disorder
39
what does the diathesis stress model state
genetics influence criminal behaviour but this is moderated by the effects of the environment
40
how can a tendency towards criminal behaviour arise
through a combination of genetic predisposition and biological or psychological triggers, such as being raised in a dysfunctional environment.
41
what is anti social personality disorder
having reduced emotional responses and lack of empathy
42
what evidence supports that a brain area may explain criminal behaviour
several brain imaging studies demonstrated that individuals with anti social personalities have reduced activity in the pre frontal cortex
43
what did RAINE find
11% reduction in volume of grey matter in the pre frontal cortex of people with APD compared to a control group
44
what did KEYSERS find
only when criminals were asked to empathise did their empathy reaction (controlled by mirror neurons in the brain) activate
45
what does KEYSERS research suggest
that APD individuals are not totally without empathy but may have a neural switch that needs to be turned on in order to experience it
46
what are the limitations of genetic and neural explanations of criminal behaviour
- concordance rates in MZ twins are not high and leave room for non genetic environmental factors
- brain scanning studies show pathology in brains of criminal psychopaths, but cannot conclude whether these abnormalities are genetic or early signs of abuse
- term ‘offending behaviour’ is too vague
- it is biologically reductionist: twin studies never show 100% conc rats so genetics cannot be the only explanation for criminal behaviour
- biological determinist: presents us with dilemma for our legal system, if someone has criminal gene thst cannot be responsible for crime
47
what is the general personality theory
Eysenck proposed that behaviour could be represented along two dimensions: introversion/extroversion and neuroticism/stability.
the two dimensions combine to form a variety of personality traits
48
where do our personality traits come from (according to eysenck)
- biological in origin
- came about through the type of nervous system we inherit from our parents
- all personality types have an innate biological basis
49
what do extraverts have and what are their personalities like (eysenck)
- underactive nervous system
- constantly seeking excitement, and stimulation
- may engage in risk taking behaviour
- difficult to condition and do not learn from their mistakes
50
what do neurotic people have and what are their personalities like (eysenck)
- have an overactive nervous system
- tend to be nervous, jumpy and over anxious
- their general instability means their behaviour is often difficult to predict
51
what is the criminal personality type
neurotic extravert
52
what will a typical offender score highly on (eysenck)
psychoticism - cold, unemotional and prone to aggression
53
in eysenck theory how is personality linked to criminal behaviour
socialisation
54
how did eysenck view criminal behaviour
- developmentally immature
| - it is selfish and concerned with immediate gratification
55
what happens to children during socialisation
-they are taught to delay gratification and be socially orientated
56
what do people with high extraversion and neuroticism scores have/are like
- nervous systems that a made them difficult to condition
- they will not learn easily to respond to their anti social impulses with anxiety
- more likely to act antisocially in situations where the opportunity presents itself
57
what is the eysenck personality inventory
a psychological test which locates respondents along the extraversion and neuroticism dimensions to determine their personality type
58
what are the limitations of eysencks theory
- FARRINGTON-offenders tended to score higher on psychoticism not on extraversion and neuroticism
- overly simplistic. crime is too varied and complex of a behaviour to be due to one single personality type
- five factor model has more combinations: openness agreeable and conscientiousness are added as dimensions
- cultural differences: hispanic and african american offenders were less extravert than non criminal groups
- personality may not be reducible to a score through a test. there is no such thing as a stable personality
59
what is moral reasoning
the process by which an individual draws upon their own value system to determine whether an action is right or wrong
60
what type of moral reasoning do offenders have
pre conventional level
61
what does pre conventional level moral reasoning mean
- person is punishment orientated and reward orientated
- immature reasoning that typically lasts from ages 3-7
- adults who still reason in this way may commit crime if they can get way with it and/or gain rewards
62
what is the strength of moral reasoning
+PALMER HOLLIN compared moral reasoning between 210 F non offenders, 122 M non offenders and 126 convicted offenders
+used 11 moral dilemmas
+offenders showed less mature moral reasoning
63
what is the limitation of moral reasoning
- level of moral reasoning may depend on type of offence
- THORNTON and REID found that individuals who committed crimes for financial gain were more likely to show pre conventional reasoning compared to those who commit impulsive crime
64
what are cognitive distortions
faulty and irrational ways of thinking that make people perceive themselves, others and the world inaccurately and often negatively
65
what is hostile attribution bias
the tendency to judge ambiguous situations, or the actions of others, as aggressive/threatening when in reality they are not
66
how do offenders with hostile attribution bias act
- misread non aggressive cues, this triggers a disproportionate, often violent, response
- offender blames victim for having ‘started it’
67
what is minimalisation
- when a criminal believes that their crime was trivial and downplays the impact of their crimes on their victims
- usually an attempt to avoid feeling guilt
68
how do offenders who minimalise their crimes act
-use euphemisms
69
what is the strength of cognitive distortions
+beneficial in the treatment of criminal behaviour
+cbt encourages offenders to ‘face up’ to what they have done and establish a less distorted view of their actions
+reduced incidence of cognitive distortions in therapy is highly correlated with a reduced risk of offending
70
what are the limitations of cognitive distortions
- whilst it explains thinking it cannot account for the source of these thoughts (nature or nurture)
- cannot be observed or measured. therefore this explanation is not scientific
71
what is the differential association theory
- offending depends on the norms/values of the offender’s social group
- offending is more likely to occur where the social group values deviant behaviour
72
what happens when a person is socialised into a social group
they will be exposed to the groups norms and values towards the law
73
what does SUTHERLAND argue (differential association theory)
if the number of pro criminal attitudes that a person comes into contact with out weigh the number of anti criminal attitudes then they will become an offender
74
how can learning occur
imitation
vicarious reinforcement
direct reinforcement
direct tuition
75
what is direct tuition
when the model explicitly teaches the learner certain behaviours or ideologies
76
what is vicarious reinforcement
when the learner observes behaviours by the model and the punishment/award they receive
77
what is direct reinforcement
when the learner themselves performs a behaviour and is punished or rewarded
78
how is it mathematically possible to predict how likely it is that someone will commit crime
if we have knowledge of
- the frequency
- intensity
- duration of which they have been exposed to criminal and non criminal norms and values .
79
why do convicts released from prison reoffend
- whilst in prison inmates will learn specific offending from more experienced criminals that they then put into practice upon their release
- this is how crime can spread among specific social groups and communities
80
what are the strengths of differential association theory
+able to account for crimes within all sectors of society. some crimes are most prevalent among affluent groups
+moves emphasis away from early biological explanations (atavistic). draws attention to role of dysfunctional social circumstances and environments in criminality
+offers more desirable and realistic solution to offending behaviour than the biological (eugenic) or morality (punishment) solution
81
what are the limitations of differential association theory
—difficult to test scientifically. most of the evidence to support it is correlational and doesn’t show cause and effect.
- built on the assumption that offending behaviour will occur when a pro criminal values outnumber anti criminals. difficult to know at what point the urge to offend will trigger a criminal career
- not everyone exposed to criminal influences commits crime. theory stereotypes people who come from impoverished, crime ridden backgrounds as unavoidably criminal. ignores fact that people have free will
82
which principle is the id
pleasure principle
83
which principle is the ego
reality principle
84
which principle is the superego
morality principle
85
when is the superego developed
end of the phallic stage of psychosexual development at 3-6 years
86
what is the oedipus complex
- male child unconsciously wishes to possess mother and get rid of father
- child experience castration anxiety, fear father will cut off penis to punish them for their feelings
- child then identifies with father and internalises the fathers superego
87
what is the electra complex
- female child wants dad
- penis envy bc they want a penis
- replace want for penis with the want for a baby
- but no castration anxiety so do not internalise mothers superego
- female superego is less developed than male one
88
what happens if superego is deficient
criminal behaviour is inevitable, because id is not properly controlled
89
what are the 3 types of inadequate superegos
weak superego
deviant superego
over harsh superego
90
what is a weak superego
- if same sex parent is absent during phallic stage, child cannot internalise a fully formed superego
- there is no opportunity for identification
91
what is a deviant superego
- if parents are deviant/criminal
| - superego that is internalised has immoral values
92
what is an over harsh superego
- excessively punitive superego
- individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety
- may unconsciously drive individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy need for punishment
93
what are the limitations of inadequate superego
- idea that girls develop weaker superego means they should theoretically commit more crime. statists refute this
- HOFFMAN test children ability to resist temptation. hardly any gender difference, girls were more moral
- little evidence that children raised without same sex parent are less law abiding
- if children with deviant parents commit crime, it could be genetics or learning
- idea that criminals have unconscious desire for punishment is implausible. most criminals hide their crime to avoid punishment
94
what is custodial sentencing
when a convicted offender spends time in prison or another closed institution
95
what are the aims of custodial sentencing
deterrence
incapacitation
retribution
rehabilitation
96
what is deterrence
- designed to put an individual off engaging in offending behaviour in thr future
- there is general deterrence and individual deterrence
97
what is the aim of general deterrence
send a broad message to members of a society that crime will not be tolerated
98
what is the aim of individual deterrence
to prevent the individual from repeating the same crime
99
what is incapacitation
- offender is taken out of society to prevent them from reoffending as a means of protecting the public
- need for incapacitation depends on the severity of the offence and nature of offender
100
what is retribution
- when society enacts revenge for the crime by making the offender suffer
- level of suffering should be proportionate to the crime
101
what is rehabilitation
- prison provides opportunities to develop skills, receive training or to access treatment programs for addiction
- upon release, prisoners are better adjusted and ready to take their place in society
102
what are the psychological effects of custodial sentencing
psychological disorders
institutionalisation
brutalisation
labelling
103
what are psychological disorders (as an effect of custodial sentencing)
- prisons have higher incidences of mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety, self harm and suicide
- 25% of women and 15% of men in prison reported symptoms of psychosis
104
what is institutionalisation
-spending time in prison leads to lack of autonomy, conformity to role of prisoner and dependency on prison culture
105
what is brutalisation
- prison acts as a school for crime and reinforces criminal lifestyle and criminal norms
- leads to high levels of reoffending
106
what is labelling
- prisoners lose touch with previous social contacts
| - find it difficult to gain employment bc they are labelled as criminal
107
what is the strength of custodial sentencing
+shows that justice has been done and limits danger to public
+prisoners can be rehabilitated to find employment upon release
+anger management therapy helps them modify their behaviour to avoid reoffending
108
what are the limitations of custodial sentencing
- suicide rat3s 15% higher in prison than general population. however difficult to demonstrate that psychological disorders are caused by prison
- 8-10%criminals commit 50% of all crimes. custodial sentencing is best reserved for repeat offenders
- crime prevention is more effective bc avoids labelling person as criminal and avoids negative consequences. also community services more effective bc prisoners can keep social contacts
109
what is behaviour modification
- behavioural therapy based on principles of operant conditioning
- involves the systematic use of positive and negative reinforcement for desired behaviours
110
what is token economy
- form of behaviour modification used in prisons
- desirable behaviour is reinforced with a token, which can be exchanged for some form of fears
- behaviour: avoid conflict, following rules, keeping cell orderly
111
what are the secondary reinforcers in the token economy
tokens
112
what are the primary reinforcers in the token economy
rewards - phone call to loved one, time in gym, access to computer, extra cigs, extra food
113
what is emphasised in the token economy
non compliance or disobedience will result in tokens being withheld (negative punishment)
114
what is the method of token economy
- desirable behaviour indemnified
- broken down into smaller steps: increments
- everyone who comes into contact must follow same regime of selective reinforcement
- programme is overseen by prison official who monitors effectiveness on management of prison
115
what is the strength of behaviour modification
+token economy is easy to administer, does not need professionals or equipment
+can be implemented by anyone
+cost effective and easy to follow
116
what are the limitations of behaviour modification
- doesn’t work if staff not consistent. lack of training makes consistency problematic
- can only be used in controlled environment. law abiding behaviour is not reinforced irl and rewards from breaking law may be powerful. offenders might also be ‘playing along’ to get rewards
- unethical. sometimes it is compulsory. withdrawals of privileges may be psychologically harmful
CORNINEU
117
what is anger management
- form of cognitive behavioural therapy
- individual is taught how to recognise when they are listing control
- encouraged to develop techniques which bring about conflict resolution
118
what are the phases of anger management
cognitive preparation
skill acquisition
application practice
119
what is cognitive preparation
- offender learns to identify the triggers for their anger
- they consider if their interpretation was rational
- therapist helps offender redefine situation as non threatening
120
what is skill acquisition
- offender is introduced to a range of techniques and skills to handle anger
- techniques can be: cognitive, behavioural and
121
what is application practice
- offender is given opportunity to practice skills they learned in monitored environment.
- role plays are used to reenact scenarios
- offender must take seriously and the therapist must ‘wind up’ offender
- successful negotiation is met with positive reinforcement from therapist
122
what are the strengths of anger management
+multidisciplinary approach. acknowledges offending is a complex behaviour
+gets to the root cause of it. doesn’t focus on superficial surface behaviour
123
what are the limitations of anger management
- assumption that anger causes offending may be false. harold shipman killed patients ‘to alleviate their suffering’
- expensive. require highly trained specialist. many prisons do not have resources
- success is based on commitment of those who participate, this is problem if prisoners are uncooperative or apathetic.
124
what is the aim of restorative justice
- switches emphases from needs of state to needs of victim
- victims encouraged to take active role in punishment
- offenders required to take responsibility for actions and face their victims
125
what is restorative justice
-a process of managed collaboration between the offender and the victim based on the principles of HEALING and EMPOWERMENT
126
what is the method of restorative
- trained mediator facilitates a meeting between offender and victim.
- victim given opportunity to confront offender and talk about how crime hurt them
- offender is confronted with consequences of their actions
127
what are the features of restorative justice
- focus on acceptance of responsibility and positive change for offenders
- not restricted to courtrooms and offenders meet face to face in less formal setting
- active rather than passive involvement of all parties
- focus on positive outcomes for both parties
128
what is restorative justice an alternative to
- custodial sentences, esp if offender is young
- an addition to community service
- incentive to reduce existing custodial sentence
129
what is the strength of restorative justice
+government funded research found that every £1 spent on RJ would save the systems £8 by reducing recidivism
-however, requires specialist snd trained pros. expensive and finding funding is challenging
130
what are the limitations of restorative justice
- success relies on offender showing remorse. some might do it to avoid prison or reduce sentence. explains high dropout rates bc people weren’t actually committed
- can’t be used for domestic abuse cases. abuser might convince victim to take them back
- ‘unpopular’ with general public bc it’s a ‘soft option’. politicians are unwilling to support it bc it won’t please public
