Assignments' Responses Flashcards
(98 cards)
0
Q
What are health claims and how many are currently approved?
A
A health claim is a statement that shows the relationship between a disease and a nutrient component (e.g., food or its contituents). As of today, there are 8 approved health claims that can be stated in food labels. Out of those 8, 4 health claims relate to starch and fermentable sugars
1
Q
How do RDAs and Adequate Intakes differ from Daily Values in their application?
A
The daily values differ from the RDAs and AI in that DV is the generic nutrition standard used on Nutrition Facts labels and it is not specific to any group. The RDAs and AI are recommendations based on experiments and observations
2
Q
What requirements must be made before a health claim can be made on a food product?
A
The food has to be a good source, before adding nutrient fortification, of fiber, vitamin A, protein, vitamin C, calcium, or iron. the food product has to provide more than 10% of the daily value for 1 or more of those nutrients. Secondly, a food serving cannot have more than 13g of fat, 4g of saturated fat, 60mg of cholesterol, or 480 mg of sodium
3
Q
What are structure/function claims?
A
The structure/function claims shows the way in which a nutrient affects the human body structure or function (e.g., calcium builds strong bones). their focus is not disease risk reduction. Also, the FDA does not regulate these types of claim.
4
Q
Which nutrients featured on Nutrition Facts panels should most people aim to keep below 100% Daily Value?
A
Total fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, and sodium
5
Q
Using Table 1-2 on page 10 as a reference, list the phytochemicals you consumed and the foods that contributed them during the three days you kept a food diary
A
N
6
Q
How many calories are in a food that has 8g carbohydrate, 2 g alcohol, 4 g fat and 2 g protein?
A
90 calories
7
Q
Hidden fats are prevalent in foods. List the definitions for “low-fat,” “fat-free,” and “reduced-fat.” Is there a food or foods you included in your food records that contained more fat than you expected? If so, which one(s)?
A
The serving of coconut oil I consume is 2 tbsps; that serving contains 240 calories –more than what I expected.
- ”low-fat”: 3 grams or less per serving, and if the serving is small, 50 grams of the food
- “fat-free”: less than 0.5 grams of fat per serving
- “reduced-fat”: at least 25% less per serving than reference food
8
Q
Which types of foods are most likely to be involved in food-borne illness? Why are they magnets for contamination?
A
The foods prepared in central processing plants are most likely to be involved in food-borne illness. They are magnet for contamination because of their sheer large-scale production, meaning that contamination can take place at any point of their production thereby affecting many people.
9
Q
What does GRAS stand for?
A
Generally Recognized as Safe
10
Q
What is the Delaney Clause?
A
The Delaney Clause in the 1958 Food Additive Amendments prohibits the use of any food additive shown to cause cancer in humans or animals at any dose. However, incidental food ad-ditives that may cause cancer are treated differently. The FDA cannot simply ban various industrial chemicals, pesticide residues, and natural mold toxins from foods because they are not purposely added to foods. However, the FDA does set an acceptable level for these substances. Basically, an incidental additive cannot contribute to more than 1 cancer case during the lifetimes of 1 million people. If a higher risk exists, the amount of the compound in a food must be reduced until the guideline is met.
11
Q
Which federal agency oversees the safety of meats sold in the United States?
A
THE USDA
12
Q
Describe four recommendations for reducing the risk of toxicity from environmental contaminants.
A
i. washing fruits and vegetables
ii. peeling fruits and vegetables
iii. trimming away fat in meat
iv. choosing a wide variety of foods in one’s diet
13
Q
Provide a list of home food-safety procedures to follow in your household. Include ideas about storage, cooking and holding temperatures,cleanliness, purchasing options, and clean-up procedures.
A
- i. Don’t purchase foods from damaged cans or cracked jars
- ii. During food shopping, place perishable foods in plastic bags, such as raw meats and seafood, last in the shopping cart to minimize the risk of contamination
- iii. Replace frequently sponges and wash kitchen towels on a regular basis
- iv. Store meats below other foods in the refrigerator
- v. Make sure the refrigerator is working at the safe temperature range of 32°F to 40°F
- vi. Cook fresh ground beef, veal, lamb, or pork at 160°F
- vii. Wash produce under running water just before eating it to get rid of bacteria, soil, and pesticides
14
Q
Who is particularly susceptible to severe illness from food-borne pathogens?
A
Individuals with weak immune systems; pregnant women and their fetuses; women who lactate; infants and young children; and the elderly
15
Q
Complete the Take Action exercise on page 145. Include your score. If your score is between 8 and 15, list what factors might be placing you at risk for poor GI health and what lifestyle choices you can make to improve the health of your GI. If your score is less than 8, list one digestive complaint you’ve experienced and how a change in food choices or habits might relieve this complaint.
A
Lactose Intolerance
By reducing the amount of lactose in the diet, as part of a habit, I could avoid the stomach discomfort I experience soon after consuming products containing lactose like whole milk. There is no need to be completely deprived of milk products; by choosing milk products that are low in fat, the stomach discomfort can be minimize as well
16
Q
Describe what a probiotic is, and give an example. Does your diet contain any probiotics? If so, list examples.
A
A probiotic is a living microorganism, normally found in fermented foods and supplements, that tends to be beneficial to one’s health (i.e., Lactobacilli). My diet contains the following probiotics, among others:
1. I. Kombucha, a fermented beverage, has these probiotics: Lactobacillus Bacterium and S. Boulardii
2. II. 2% Milk: lactobacillus
3. III. Pickled peppers: lacto-fermented probiotics
17
Q
What are the 3 sections of the small intestine?
A
Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
18
Q
Where is bile synthesized and what is its function?
A
The bile is synthesized in the liver and its function is to aid digestion and absorption
19
Q
What is the role of the pancreas in digestion? Which type of absorption requires energy?
A
The role of the pancreas is to release sodium bicarbonate and enzymes for the digestion of carbohydrates, fat, and protein. The type of active absorption that requires energy is active absorption because not only a carrier protein is needed but also the energy molecule ATP
20
Q
Using the nutritional analysis from one day of your food record in assignment 1, compare your carbohydrate intake to the Food and Nutrition Board recommendation of 45-65 percent of calories from carbohydrates. Did your intake meet this recommendation? If not, how can you adjust your diet to better meet those recommendations?
A
My total carbohydrate percent average reported in assignment one is about 36%; thus, my intake is far from meeting the recommended intake. I would have to reduce the amount of fat I consume and add a variety of complex and simple carbohydrates to my diet, mostly complex to avoid having sugar spikes in my blood.
21
Q
Using the nutritional analysis from your food record in the pre-assignment, complete the Take Action exercise on page 167 (Estimate Your Fiber Intake). Submit your answers to the questions.
A
Pre-assignment: day 1
FOOD SERVINGS GRAMS
Vegetables 5.52 x 2 = 11.04 g (other vegetables)
Fruits 0 x 2.5 = 0
Beans, lentils, split peas 0 x 7 = 0
Whole grains 0.66 x 2.5 = 1.65 (brown rice)
Refined grains 2.66 x 1 = 2.66 (macaroni)
Breakfast cereals 0 x grams of fiber per serving = 0
TOTAL GRAMS OF FIBER: 15.35
For this particular day, my fiber intake is way below the 38g of fiber per day recommended for men
22
Q
Explain the difference between a simple carbohydrate and a complex carbohydrate and provide examples for each.
A
The simple form of carbohydrate are monosaccharides and disaccharides which are simple sugars with the formula (CH2O)6 and (CH2O)12 respectively. Examples of such simple carbohydrates are glucose, fructose, and galactose. The complex form of carbohydrates are composed of many glucose molecules linked together, known as polysaccharides. Glycogen, starch, and fiber are complex carbohydrates
23
Q
Describe the three classes of fatty acids. Which will be liquid at room temperature and why?
A
Saturated fatty acid (SFA): every carbon in the fatty acid is saturated, that is, bonded to 2 other carbons and 2 hydrogens.
Monounsaturated fatty acid: the fatty acid has two carbons that are connected by a double bond (each carbon is missing a hydrogen atom).
Polyunsaturated fatty acid: his type of fatty acid has more than two double bonds in its molecular structure.
The fatty acid that will be liquid at room temperature is the polyunsaturated fatty acid. Due to the molecular structure of fatty acids they do not cluster tightly together and because of this loose interaction they remain liquid at room temperature. In contrast, the straight shape of saturated fatty acids cause them to pack closely together causing them to be solid at room temperature.
24
How many grams of total and saturated fat do you consume on average on a daily basis? What percent of your total calories is contributed by your total and saturated fat intake?
How does your total and saturated fat intake compare to recommendations by the Institute of Medicine?
If your totals are above or below the recommended levels, which foods would you cut down on or add to bring your total and saturated fat into line?
On a daily basis, I consume 55.8g of total fat, and out of that, 19.3 is saturated fat. The percent of total fat in average daily calories is about 48% and 16% is contributed from the saturated fats.
The total fat recommended by the Institute of Medicine is from 20-35% of dietary calories. Also, the institute recommends consuming saturated fat as low as possible, it is not specific. The American Heart Association and the Dietary Guidelines for Americans committee recommends a saturated fat intake of no more than 10%. Based on these percent values, my fat percent total fat intake is higher than the maximum amount recommended by 13 percentage points. And, my saturated fat intake is 6 percentage points higher than the maximum percent recommended by the American Heart Association.
The only food that I have to stop consuming is fat coffee (aka bulletproof coffee). I always use a couple of spoon of coconut oil to make my coffee delicious and full of energy.
25
Name six food sources of essential fatty acids. Do you commonly eat any of these foods?
Six sources of foods containing essential fatty acids are: salmon, walnuts, tuna, beef, poultry, and sunflower oil. Given their popularity, I have access to these foods on a weekly basis; I try to include them in my diet consistently.
26
How does the glycemic index differ from the glycemic load?
The glycemic index is the ratio of the blood glucose response compared to a standard glucose measurement (i.e., white bread). The glycemic load is based on the glycemic index value which takes into account the amount of carbohydrates consumed, giving a more precise and relevant blood glucose value as opposed to just a standard percentage value of any given food.
27
Calculate your RDA for protein using page 236 as your guide. Compare this result to your intake from one day of your food diary. If your intake is too low or too high, how could your diet be adjusted?
70.3 Kg x 0.8 g protein = 56.24 g of protein (my protein RDA)
Kg of body weight
The amount recorded for my food diary for one of the three days is 14.9 oz or 422.4 grams.
422. 4 g of protein = 7.51 times my protein RDA!
56. 24 g for my protein RDA
My intake is 7.51 times higher than my recommended protein daily allowance. A good way to reduce my protein excess is to not eat any protein during lunch. That is because most days I have protein in my breakfast and I know that consuming protein for breakfast is important to get the day started.
28
Why are some amino acids classified as essential and others as nonessential? What are complementary proteins and provide examples of each?
Some amino acids are classified as essential because the human body cannot synthesize them; thus, they need to be included in one’s diet. As for the nonessential amino acids, the body is capable of synthesizing them.
Complementary proteins are plant proteins that when combined tend to compensate for the amino acid deficiencies from the other protein, so that, they complement each other. Nuts and seeds have the amino acid Lysine amiss. This missing amino acid can be obtained from legumes such as kidney beans.
29
What are the symptoms of food allergies?
For the most part, food allergy symptoms tend to be mild such as sneezing, itchy skin, vomiting, diarrhea, etc. In some cases, if the allergic response to food is severe, the body may enter into a anaphylactic shock (decreased blood pressure accompanied by respiratory distress)
30
Which foods cause most food allergies?
products; wheat; eggs; soy products; and fish or shellfish products; wheat; eggs; soy products; and fish or shellfish
31
What steps can parents take to help prevent food allergies in children?
Avoidance of peanuts during the breastfeeding period
- Breastfeed (or infant formula) babies until they have reached 6 months of age
- Avoid giving infants milk products until they are 1 year old
- Introduce egg whites until children have reached 2 years of age
- Provide a diet free of peanuts, tree nuts, csh and shellfish until children are older than 3 years old
32
Explain the process of glycolysis and why it is important.
Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose (the most important carbohydrate involved in cell metabolism) for the production of cellular energy and for the formation of substrates required for the synthesis of other compounds within the cell. It is an important metabolic process because glucose is the main form of carbohydrate implicated in the metabolism of the cell.
33
Read the Take Action exercise on page 304 of your text (Weight Loss and Metabolism). Please answer questions 1-2. Submit your answers.
1. During the fasting stage, what were the likely sources of energy for the body’s cells? What metabolic adaptations occurred to provide glucose for the nervous system?
During this fasting stage, the body reacts by spending less energy, thus metabolism slows down. In any case, the body still needs energy. In the first few hours of fasting, the body continues to make use of the glucose coming from carbohydrates (and some other from the liver and muscle glycogen stores). From days 3 to 5, the body continues using glucose for energy with the main difference that the body itself, from cell proteins, now manufactures this glucose. The way this occurs is through glucogenic amino acids (not all amino acids can be converted into glucose), this is known as glucogeogenesis. Glucose production occurs all the time and it reflects on the need of the nervous system’s demands for energy, which can only make use of glucose as the one and only source of energy. Another source of glucose is glycerol which can be extracted from fats and converted into glucose by first entering the glycolysis pathway followed by the glucogeogenesis pathway, however. This glycerol source only supplies about 10% of the total glucose. In addition to this pathway, the body starts breaking down more fat to meet all the energy requirements. Passing day 5, another metabolic adaptation takes place, fat starts to be burned out more heavily, in the form of fatty acids, to provide the energy required for metabolism. This happens through what is known as ketogenesis, which takes place in liver cells and results in the production of ketone bodies that serve as the alternative to glucose for energy.
34
When he began eating 400 to 600 kcal/day, how did the metabolic processes in the body most likely change the fasting state?
When the overweight friend started eating again 400 to 600 kcal per day, the metabolic adaptations reversed. Now, the body can start using glucose again straight from the diet since she is eating 1 cup of fruit, and 2 starch items per day -all of these are great sources of carbohydrates. The glucose pathway is sort of the default pathway for energy since the needed glucose is readily available. As for the ketogenesis process, it was probably reduced to a minimum serving as a type of supplement for any energy shortage.
35
Calculate your energy needs using the Estimated Energy Requirement equation. How does your caloric intake compare to this?
EER = 662 - (9.53 * AGE) + PA * (15.91 * WT + 539.6 * HT)
EER = 662 - (9.53 * 28) + 1.25 * (15.91 * 70.45 + 539.6 * 1.69)
➔ 662 – (266.84) + 1.25 * (1,120.86 + 911.92)
➔395.16 + 2540.98 ➔ R/ ~2,936.14 calories
Based on the caloric data provided in the pre-assignment, my average caloric intake for those three days is about 1,245. I need to consume 1,691 calories in order to meet my metabolic requirements.
36
a. What evidence supports the role of genetics in determining body weight?
b. What evidence supports the role of the environment in determining body weight?
c. Why is it likely that both genetics and the environment determine body weight?
The role of genetics is a significant determinant on body weight. According to ‘identical twins’ studies, twins who grow apart in different food environments tend to have a similar pattern in body weight. Another genetic proof is that of the relationship between basal metabolic rate and body surface, that is: taller people have a higher metabolism than shorter people. Thus, taller people do not gain weight that easily. Furthermore, some other people have what is called “thrifty metabolism,” which facilitates fat storage at the expense of energy utilization for the individual’s metabolism. All of these genetic findings point to the ‘set-point theory’ validity, which proposes that body weight is genetically predetermined. For instance, the body tends to fight back any gain or loss of body weight (i.e., illness, starvation periods, or overeating). (…)
As the role of the environment, there is also some evidence that can back up its validity in determining body weight composition. That is, in families, similar body weight is linked to acquired eating behaviors, which may be taken to mean a similarity due to genetic factors. Also, the current obesity epidemic in the United States cannot be attributed to our gene pool because we have not changed much in the past 50 years. In addition, there are many other variables that can affect body weight composition, among a few are: culture, education, health, and income.
It is likely that both nurture and nature determine our body weight. It is true that we are the product of our gene expression. But, at the same time, humans live in many different environments whereby exposure to different circumstances, people, or amount of food intake can decisively change body weight composition.
37
By now, it's clear that a diet plan's success or failure is only limited by the public's gullibility. Numerous diet plans, books, and formulas have come and gone. List five or more red flags of a fad diet.
Unrealistic diet plans (i.e., fruit based diet only)
Monotony: eating the same foods over and over again
Temporary but not lasting weight loss
Weight loss claims seem unrealistic (i.e., lose 30 pounds in a month!)
The belief that a single diet can work for all individuals
38
What BMI classifies underweight? What health problems are associated with being underweight? What interventions could be recommended to aid in weight gain?
The BMI for underweight is below 18.5. There are a number of health problems associated with a BMI index lower than 18.5. Women may have a loss of normal menstrual function as well as pregnancy complications. In addition, being underweight may affect surgery outcomes and slow down recovery after an illness. For children it may affect normal growth and development. To address all of these health problems, underweight individuals need to consume higher energy dense foods instead of low energy dense foods. It is important to note, that increasing food intake, or portion sizes, has to be done in a gradual basis. In addition, including snacks in the diet (i.e., in between regular meals) will aid in gaining weight. In the individual is excessively active, physical activity should be reduced. All in all, the main goal is to increase energy intake and decrease energy expenditure.
39
a. List the typical characteristics of a person with anorexia nervosa.
b. List the detrimental physical and psychological side effects of bulimia nervosa.
For anorexia nervosa, the typical characteristics are a loss of appetite (more like a hunger denial), disgust with one’s body, extreme weight loss, a distorted body image, and an extreme fear of any gain weight and obesity. In addition, people diagnosed with this disorder believe they are fat, which is not the case. 345
The physical side effects of bulimia nervosa are: teeth decay due to continuous exposure to vomit, fall of potassium levels, salivary gland swelling, stomach ulcers and tears in the esophagus, constipation, higher chance of developing infections, and a higher risk of accidental poisoning.
Among the psychological side effects, we have: anxiety, fear of gaining body fat, depression, suicidal tendency, stress, boredom, and loneliness.
40
Where does vitamin absorption occur?
Vitamin absorption occurs in the small intestine
41
What are retinoids?
Retinoids are the biological active state of vitamin A.
42
What is the relationship of beta-carotene to vitamin A?
Beta-carotene (a plant derivative compound) is a precursor to vitamin A that results from its metabolism in the small intestine or liver.
43
Where is vitamin A stored?
The body stores vitamin A primarily in the liver (about 90%), with the rest being stored in adipose tissue, bone marrow, testicles, eyes, and kidneys.
44
What is the function of vitamin A? List the symptoms of deficiency.
Functions: normal growth and development (limb formation in embryos, eyes, cardiovascular and nervous system); normal function of epithelial cells across different body systems; crucial for the normal functioning of mucous forming cells (i.e., lungs and intestines); cell differentiation (especially in the development of the different components of the eye, such as the retina and lens), specifically through the normal gene expression; visual signal conversion in the retina, that for light stimuli to be turned into nerve impulses; immune system normal functioning;
b. Deficiency: fetal malformation or death; increased incidence of infection; non-accidental blindness; night blindness; xerophthalmia (dry eyes because eyes no longer produce tears); development of the skin condition known as follicular hyperkeratosis (dry and sandy skin texture); growth impairment in children
45
What occurs when large amounts of carotenoids are consumed, and is this harmful?
Nothing occurs when large amounts of carotenoids are consumed in the diet because its conversion to vitamin A is relatively low. Furthermore, as more carotenoids are consumed, the small intestine becomes less efficient at absorbing it. The only condition that could arise is hypercarotenemia (the carotene concentration in the blood is too high), but his condition is harmless.
46
Who is at risk for vitamin D deficiency?
Poor children in developing countries; in developed countries, children with dark complexion, those with low milk intake, and children with low sun exposure may be at risk of vitamin D deficiency. In adults, vitamin D deficiency, known as osteomalacia, occurs in individuals who have been afflicted with diseases in these organs: kidney, liver, gallbladder, or intestines. The same holds true for adults who have low exposure to sunlight and those with dark skin as well tend to be at a high risk for a vitamin D deficiency.
47
How does vitamin D differ from the other fat-soluble vitamins?
Vitamin D is considered to be a "conditional" vitamin because in the presence of sunlight (UV light), the skin can synthesize it from cholesterol; this is why this vitamin is considered to be a pro hormone
48
How can a lack of vitamin D in childhood result in rickets?
Because of its hormone-like functions, vitamin D plays an important role in the absorption of calcium and phosphorous from the diet. If there is a deficiency, the bones fail to mineralize properly, rendering them weak and susceptible to malformations. Weakened bones result in the development of bowed legs in children, which is one of the physical effect of rickets. Other signs of this disease include the enlargement of the head, joints, and rib cage.
49
Name four good food sources of vitamin E.
Sunflower seeds
Asparagus
Wheat germ
Almonds
50
Why is vitamin E known as the anti-aging vitamin?
Vitamin is known as an anti-aging vitamin because it acts as an antioxidant protecting the cell against the destructive effects of free radicals which are the chemically reactive byproducts of metabolic reactions that damage the cell
51
What is considered a safe supplemental amount of vitamin E to take daily, and what can happen if amounts in excess of this are consumed?
The upper level is set at 1100 IU from synthetic sources. Individuals who have a vitamin D intake higher than the upper limit can have blood clotting problems and a risk of hemorrhaging.
52
Name three food sources of vitamin K.
Green leafy vegetables
Broccoli
Peas
53
How does vitamin K help in the formation of blood clots?
Vitamin K aids the liver in the formation of blood clotting factors. In addition, it helps in the conversion of preprothrombin to become the factor prothrombin (an active blood clotting factor).
54
What population groups are at increased risk of a vitamin K deficiency?
Infants are at risk because their bodies have a low amount of vitamin K. People who are taking antibiotics are at risk as well.
55
What are three general functions of riboflavin? Name two food sources of riboflavin.
Three general functions of riboflavin are antioxidant function, energy metabolism, and similar functions related to the formation of B vitamins. Riboflavin can be found in milk products and eggs.
56
What type of anemia signifies a folate deficiency?
Folate is a compound required for DNA synthesis; without it, cells cannot form new DNA strands. This deficiency affects cells that are rapidly dividing or that have a short life span. Case in point, red blood cells are continuously formed in the bone marrow. Since DNA formation is compromised, red blood cells cannot divide properly and they grow abnormally large. This occurs because there is a continuous formation of RNA and protein inside the cell. These abnormal red blood cells, when they reside in the bone marrow, are known as megaloblasts; since they lack DNA in their nucleus, they cannot divide normally. A small number of cells leave the bone marrow into the bloodstream, they are known as macrocytes and they cannot transport oxygen efficiently. Thus, even though the blood volume is about normal, the maladaptive macrocytes impede normal oxygen delivery.
57
What roles do HCl, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor, and the ileum play in vitamin B-12 absorption?
The first stage of vitamin B-12 absorption is the detachment from its binding proteins; this is facilitated by HCl and pepsin, present in the gastric juice released in digestion. Once vitamin B-12 has been freed, it combines with a intrinsic factor (a protein formed in the parietal cells of the stomach) which enhances vitamin B-12 absorption in the ileum where it is transferred to the blood transport protein transcobalamin II that ultimately sending it to the liver.
58
How are vitamin B-12 and folate metabolism related?
Folate and vitamin B-12 have a codependent metabolic pathway. Folate (5-Me-THFA) donates the methyl group to Cobalamin (vitamin B-12) transforming the folate into THFA, which forms folate coenzymes used in various reactions. Through this reaction, Cobalamin becomes Me-Cobalamin, which donates the methyl group to homocysteine by combining with the enzyme Methionine synthase to produce Methionine. Methionine is converted into S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) that serves as a methyl donor in methylation reactions that are important for DNA and RNA regulation.
59
What foods are good sources of vitamin B-12?
Foods that have animal origin are a good source of vitamin B-12. Some include: meat seafood, eggs, dairy, and organ meats.
60
List the functions of water.
i. i) Temperature regulation thanks to its high heat capacity and help in sweat formation
ii. ii) Waste product removal which ends up in urination
iii. iii) Keeping blood volume constant
iv. iv) Oxygen and nutrient transport throughout the body
v. v) Serves as the basis for all the body fluids (i.e., saliva, bile, etc.)
vi. vi) Lubricates joints thanks to its incompressibility
vii. vii) Solvent for countless metabolic processes
viii. viii) Important reactant in countless chemical reactions
61
What factors and nutrients influence blood pressure?
The main risk factors that influence people’s blood pressure are age, race, obesity, and a diabetic condition. Other ailments such as kidney disease and liver disease may affect blood pressure too. As for the mineral mechanism at play, the sodium/potassium balance is the main determinant of blood pressure. Consuming more than the upper limit of sodium in one’s diet increases the risk of developing high blood pressure. In contrast, high levels of potassium help the body to get rid of excess sodium bringing down blood pressure to normal levels. Unfortunately, the downside to this is that a low consumption of potassium can lead to high blood pressure, this condition is known as hypokalemia. There are other nutrients that play a role in regulating blood pressure as well. For instance, in the case of magnesium, one of its functions is that it can decrease blood pressure by dilating the blood vessels. Another nutrient that may counteract the effects of high sodium is calcium, but the jury is still out there, more research is needed.
62
Using the Adequate Intake for calcium, how much calcium is required for children and adults? What might you tell a 12-year-old child about the importance of consuming sufficient calcium?
The adequate intake of calcium for children is more than 1300 mg per day and for adults the adequate intake ranges from 1000 to 1200 mg per day. I would advice to a 12-year-old child to consume this important nutrient because it is essential for developing and maintaining healthy bones. Thus, making sure he or she consumes enough calcium is important to ensure that normal growth is not affected during adolescence. I would add that calcium is important for other body processes such as blood clotting, sensing nerve impulses, cell metabolism, and muscle contraction; I will do so using friendly-kid-language. If not enough calcium is consumed, then the body would utilize the calcium from the bones and use it to make sure these other functions take place, making the bones weak and prone to fracture. So I would advice that drinking a glass of milk a day keeps the fractures away!
63
Which nutrients influence osteoporosis?
The nutrients that influence the development of osteoporosis are calcium, vitamin D, magnesium (vitamin D function depends on it), and excessive sodium intake (it increases calcium loss in the urine).
64
Prepare a menu for a patient who is salt-sensitive delivering no more than 1.5 grams of sodium.
Food Menu (less than 1.5 grams of sodium)
Food
Ration
Sodium (mg)
```
Scrambled eggs
3.6 oz
196
Breakfast
Low sodium milk
1 cup
7
```
French toast
1 oz
136
```
Raw broccoli
1 cup (chopped)
30
Lunch
Pink salmon
fillet
119
```
```
Asparagus
1/2 cup
1.5
Snack
Peanuts without salt
1/2 cup
4.5
```
Eggplant
1/2 cup
118.5
```
Seasoned turkey
1 oz
241
Dinner
Coconut water
cup
252
```
Sweet potato with skin
cup
72
```
Total Sodium (mg)
1177.5
```
If the salt-sensitive patient follows this menu he or she will consume around 1.2g in sodium per day.
65
Explain three key functions of iron in the body? Name several iron-rich food sources (including an animal and a vegetable source).
Iron is paramount in the oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin (red blood cells) and myoglobin (a protein in muscle cells); iron is involved (a cofactor for enzymes) in the synthesis of the neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and serotonin; these are important for the development and function of the brain; iron is required for the production of lymphocytes and natural killer cells, important for fighting back infection.
Some foods rich in iron are clams, liverwurst, cooked spinach, beef roast, sesame seeds, and navy beans among others.
66
Describe the chief function of fluoride, copper, chromium, and manganese in the body.
ii. i) Fluoride is important for the mineralization of bones and teeth
iii. ii) Copper is involved in iron metabolism
iv. iii) Chromium enhances insulin function
v. iv) Manganese is the cofactor of several enzymes
67
Why is selenium considered an antioxidant?
Selenium is considered an antioxidant because it helps in preventing lipid peroxidation and damage to the cell membrane. Selenium is an essential component of the glutathione peroxidase system, which breaks down peroxides before they have the chance of becoming free radicals. Instead of being a radical scavenger neutralizing free radicals, it contributes in the prevention of free radicals forming in the first place; hence, this is why this mineral is considered to be an antioxidant
68
Describe the three stages of carcinogenesis and give examples of how diet impacts cancer initiation and promotion.
ii. i) In the first stage, the cell is exposed to a carcinogen (i.e., tobacco, alcohol, sun exposure) that triggers the initiation process, which can last from minutes to days. In this stage, the cell DNA is altered –a malign mutation
iii. ii) In the second stage, the DNA mutation has become part of the genetic material of the cell. Promoters (agents that encourage cell division) direct the cell to divide in an uncontrolled fashion. The cell divides so fast that repair mechanisms are practically shut down.
iv. iii) In the last stage, known as the progression phase, the cells start dividing out of control, proliferating and invading surrounding tissues. This invasion is known as metastasis. At the beginning of this phase, the immune system eliminates some of these deformed cells. In some other cases, the malign cells undergo so much genetic mutation that at some point they are unable to continue proliferating. As the malign cells continue spreading uncontrollably tumor formation occurs.
Diet plays an important role in the division of the cell. By providing all the nutrients needed to the body, cell replication occurs without any problem, however. Food contaminants and dietary factors can serve as promoters in the initiation process of carcinogenesis. Also, if a person consumes too much alcohol, that too has the capacity of being a promoter for cancer.
69
Outline current weight-gain recommendations for pregnancy. What is the basis for these recommendations?
The current weight-gain recommendations for pregnancy have been set since the 1990s by the National Academy of Science’s Institute of Medicine. Such recommendations are based on the initial body mass index just before pregnancy occurs (pre-pregnancy BMI) and a presumed gestation period longer than 38 weeks. Four BMI categories have been outlined and based on those recommended body weight-gain ranges have been defined, they are: low, with a BMI of 19.8 or lower and a weight-gain ranging from 28-40 lbs. Normal, with a BMI ranging from 19.8 to 25.9 and weight-gain starting at 25 and terminating at 35 lbs. A BMI between 26 and 29 is considered high and the recommended weight-gain is from 15 to 25 lbs. Lastly, an obese woman, with a BMI greater than 29, is recommended to gain 15 lbs or more. The basis these recommendations during pregnancy is based on studies that have shown that weight-gain improves the chances of optimal health for the fetus and mother as well, promotes a healthy fetal growth, reduces the risks of complications during delivery and the chances of developing chronic diseases later on in life, brings down the risk of premature birth, and the postpartum maternal weight is retained at a healthy level for the lactation period.
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Identify four key nutrients for which intake should be significantly increased during pregnancy?
Iron needs to increase due to the pressing need that pregnant woman have for it in order to produce more maternal blood. In addition, the fetus needs iron to create a storage for this mineral for the first few months postpartum. This mineral is such a key player in fetal/infant development that the lack of it may cause premature birth, low birth weight, or even death. The negative effects of its deficiency extend to the mother as well. She may difficulty giving birth, experience preeclampsia, and have a high risk of death.
Calcium is another key nutrient that needs to be consumed significantly during pregnancy. This mineral is so important in pregnancy that the body absorbs it more efficiently whenever calcium enriched foods are consumed. Aside bone calcification, calcium is needed for the full-term fetus to acquire as much as 30 grams
Vitamin D, which is important for numerous metabolic processes, is essential for calcium absorption during pregnancy. The lack of vitamin D causes the mother’s bones to become soft, a condition known as osteomalacia. Its deficiency also causes the fetus to develop rickets, poor tooth and bone calcification, and poor growth.
Protein consumption needs to increase as much as 50% to sustain the constant and rapid cell division that builds up the fetus. In the United States as well as in other developed countries, the incidence of protein deficiency is rare because women have easy access to protein and it is present in a wide variety of foods.
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How do iron deficiency anemia and physiological anemia differ?
Iron deficiency anemia tends to occur during the growing years. In the growth period, it is important to have a diet rich in iron to ensure this mineral does not reach anemic levels. Iron deficiency anemia goes hand by hand with normal growth; the bigger the body becomes, the more iron it needs to produce healthy red blood cells. On the other side, physiological anemia is the normal increase of blood volume during the pregnancy period, which dilutes the concentration of red blood cells. In this case, pregnancy is the main cause of iron dilution.
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Nutrient supplements during pregnancy are recommended for which groups of women?
Nutrient supplements are recommended for women who have a history of dieting; teenager (since it is very likely that they are still undergoing growth); vegans; are poor; have a low BMI; tend to be addicted to either smoking or alcohol or some other illegal drugs; are expecting more than one fetus; or have a low diverse diet.
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What steps can lactating women take to ensure they consume an adequate amount of nutrients?
The first thing to consider is to make sure that the dietary reference intakes for lactating women are followed. It is important that there is an adequate intake of all nutrients. Generally, lactating women tend to consume less than the recommended amounts of calcium, magnesium, zinc, folate, and vitamin B-6. From this list of minerals, calcium is the one that has to be replenished the most because women who breastfeed for more than six months do lose it in significant amounts from their bones. To make sure they get the adequate amount of nutrients, lactating women should consume fortified foods and a multivitamin-complex and/or mineral supplements. Also, omega-3 fatty acids (which are important for the development of the nervous system) are an important component of human milk.
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Why is the need for water of critical importance during infancy?
The need for water is critical during this period because the body mass composition as a percent of water is higher in infants than adults; they turn over this water seven times more rapidly than adults. Also, the body surface area per body weight is higher in infants so they tend to lose much more water through their skin. Another reason why water is so critical is that infant’s metabolism is twice as fast as that of an adult; this means that more waste is generated and water is required for its excretion. Lastly, and building up upon the previous reason, the kidney of an infant is half as efficient as that of an adult so more water is needed to get rid of metabolic waste.
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What vitamin and mineral supplements are recommended for infants, children, and teens?
Since growth is a physiologically taxing process, infants, children, and teens need to consume supplements. During the growth period, iron supplementation is recommended, especially for infants who need to be put in an iron-fortified formula (formula-fed infants). Another important consideration is that since newborn babies have low amounts of fluoride, vitamin K, and vitamin D, they need to include supplementation in the diet. As for children and teens, they need to consume supplements for calcium, zinc, folate and vitamins A and C.
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Why is human milk better suited to infants than cow or goat milk?
Human milk is better suited because its nutrient composition and bioavailability are meant exclusively for infant consumption. Breastfeeding provides all the nutrients that the baby needs in the first in the first two years after birth (The World Health Organization recommends breastfeeding for at least two years) as well as key proteins (i.e., immune factors and enzymes) that the baby needs to build up a strong immune system. Major proteins such as lactalbumin and lactoferrin (which increases iron absorption) are designed for normal development. In addition, infants may find hard to digest casein, the protein found in cow and goat milk. Lastly, human milk provides cholesterol in high amounts, linoleum acid, and omega-3 fatty acids, which are essential for the development of the nervous system and retina. All in all, giving human milk to an infant is the way nature intended; doing otherwise may be detrimental to the infant’s health and proper development.
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How might an infant signal he or she has had enough to eat?
The behaviors to look for that signal that the infant has had enough to eat either from bottle-feeding or breastfeeding are turning the head away, being inattentive, falling sleep, and playful behavior. Following these behavioral signs are important because they show that the baby had enough to meet his or her energy needs and they foster a great communicating between parent or caregiver and infant.
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What physical ability signs indicate babies are developmentally ready for solid foods?
nfants show that they are ready to eat solid foods when they have the ability to control head movements and can sit in the right posture (which is important for a clear passageway from the mouth to the stomach). These physical abilities are enough to show that they have interest in food, feel satiated, and are no longer interested in food. Another important sign is the weakening extrusion effect in which the baby pushes food out of the mouth by using the tongue. Another physical ability is the chewing motion that the infant makes. This is evident by looking at the jaw line, which is more pronounced because the fat pad in the cheek had diminished.
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Read the Take Action exercise on page 637 (Getting Young Bill to Eat). Answer the questions and submit your responses.
a. a) List 4 mistakes Bill's parents are making that contribute to Bill's poor eating habits?
i. i) Forcing little Bill to sit down and eat lunch and dinner is problematic because children at the age of three cannot hold easily an adult size meal. The important thing is that if he likes to eat snacks, eating the nutritious kind will allow him to get the proper nutrition
ii. ii) Another mistake that Bill’s parents make is that they seem not to care much about breakfast. They emphasize lunch and dinner only when in fact breakfast (along with snacks in the morning) provides a higher intake of vitamins and minerals in the diet compared to children who skip breakfast
iii. iii) Out of convenience, Bill’s mother likes to serve casseroles and stews on a regular basis. By doing so, Bill does not have many food options to choose from thereby making mealtime a routine rather than something new and exciting
iv. iv) Bill’s parents show their disapproval towards Bill’s eating habits to the point that he feels discouraged. The fact that he chooses to drink milk should be cherished upon. In doing so, and most likely, Bill will start choosing foods that get his parents’ approval.
a. b) List 4 strategies Bill's parent might try to promote good eating habits for Bill?
i. i) Since Bill likes snacking, his family should introduce him to new and healthy snacks. As challenging as this may be, the health benefits could last an entire life time
ii. ii) Instead of having the father eating his vegetables at last, everybody should eat together at the same time. This is very important because 3 year-old children like to be included in everything. If he sees his father eating his vegetables at the same time, Bill might as well jump onboard with the veggies
iii. iii) The way food is presented is very important in order to encourage young children to eat. For children, casseroles and stews are not quite appealing. Instead, and as it relates to this case, Bill’s family has to get creative in the way they present the food to Bill to make it more attractive and pleasurable
iv. iv) Bill’s parents could have a special meal on a regular basis in which Bill is given new foods in order to taste each one of them. This could transform mealtime into a playful family activity
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Which two nutrients are of particular concern in planning diets for teenagers? Why does each deserve to be singled out?
One of the nutrients of particular concern is iron because during the teenage years the demand for this mineral shoots up. In males, the demand for iron goes up by a 40%; for females, the demand reaches nearly 90% increase. In both genders, there is a substantial increase in body mass or lean tissue (such increase being much higher in males). A bigger mass necessitates a bigger blood volume. To meet these demands a high amount of iron in the diet is needed. If the demand is not met, then anemia develops. These are the main reasons why it is important to have a diet rich in iron during the teen years.
During adolescence calcium plays a pivotal role in the development of bones. Bones, which are important for body structure and support, grow longer and denser during this period. A low intake of calcium causes the bones to grow a much lesser density making them prone to fracture or osteoporosis in the later years of life. For this reason it is important to meet the daily recommended allowance for calcium in the adolescence years.
81
Which nutrients tend to be too low in the diets of adults?
The nutrients that tend to be low in adults are vitamin D, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, folate, and vitamins B-6, B-12, and E.
82
What are some examples of how a healthy diet can benefit adults?
During adulthood, nutrients are primarily needed to maintain the body. For this reason, eating a healthy diet is very important soon after reaching age 30. For instance, a healthy diet can minimize the loss of lean mass (important for basal metabolic rate) and keep away fat from accumulating in the body. This results in a healthy adult weight, which helps in the preservation of bone mass. Another benefit of a healthy diet rich in vitamin D (necessary for calcium absorption) and calcium is that bone preservation increases so the rate of calcium loss goes down. Also, following a diet low in sodium may help, accompanied with a healthy body weight, delays the increases in blood pressure. Lastly, making sure that nutrient intake does not exceed the daily recommended amounts is equally important as well.
83
Discuss three physiological changes experienced by older adults, and describe ways to meet their nutrient needs despite these changes.
ii. i) The gradual loss of minerals from the bones, especially in women 5 to 10 years post-menopause may cause osteoporosis. Since the absorption of calcium, an important mineral for bone maintenance goes down with age. It is important to consume this mineral in higher quantities in the adult years. Furthermore, to make sure it is absorbed, it is important to consume vitamin D as well.
iii. ii) A progressive decrease of lean body mass as people get older occurs. As one gets older, basal metabolism decreases. A way to address this decline is to boost up metabolism through physical exercise. Making physical activity a habit can bring up metabolic rate
iv. iii) The immune system also deteriorates and it becomes less effecting at fighting back infection and disease. To maintain the immune system in the best possible condition, it is advised that the individual meets all the caloric and nutritional needs so the immune system is better equipped in order to work properly. Physical exercise is another booster to the immune system
84
What is the main form of energy that cells use?
The main source of energy for the cell is adenosine triphosphate (ATP
85
What fuels anaerobic exercise?
Carbohydrates are the main fuel of anaerobic exercise
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What fuels aerobic exercise?
Fat is what fuel aerobic exercise
87
Why is creatine so important for fueling high-intensity, short-duration exercise?
During high intensity exercise, the cell uses up ATP at a much higher rate. To sustain such physical exertion, the cell needs to replenish ATP fast. To do so, it needs to store ATP in muscle cells. This storage is possible by the combination of ATP with creatine thereby forming phosphocreatine (PCr). During exercise, ATP is converted into ADP and the latter accumulation signal PCr to donate its phosphate group, which recycles ADP into ATP again
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How does fitness level affect the fuels burned for exercise?
The higher the fitness level, the more carbohydrates are used as a source of fuel. On the other end, the lower the fitness level, the more fat is used as a fuel source
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When is protein used as a fuel source during exercise?
Protein is used as a source fuel in endurance exercise. As much as 15% of energy expenditure comes from protein.
90
What role does protein have in resistance exercise?
Protein as a source of energy has the least contribution in resistance exercise. It is true that the amino acids that constitute protein are important players when it comes to repairing the muscle and making it stronger after each workout, however. When it comes to supplying the muscle with energy, protein is a poor energy source.
91
What is causing him to be so fatigued that he cannot finish his workout?
Roughly the energy used in resistance exercise comes from mainly from fat and carbohydrate, 60% and 49% respectively. Based on his sampled diet, he is consuming very little fat and not enough carbohydrates. This means that his energy storage (i.e., glycogen and fat) is very low making him fatigued. In addition, considering that he is a weight lifter, meaning that his lean body mass is much higher, he need to consume more energy just to keep up with the basal metabolic rate to maintain this mass.
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Should he consume more protein?
Consuming more protein would be the wrong thing to do. Clearly he does not have a protein deficiency; on the contrary, he is consuming too much protein. More protein, just because muscle is made out of it, does not translate to more muscle mass. What he needs to consume is more carbohydrates and food sources containing phosphocreatine in order to meet his energy needs.
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What is the easiest way for athletes to assess calorie intake?
The easiest way to assess calorie intake is by checking the body weight on a regular basis. If the body weight goes down that is a sign that no enough calories are consumed in the diet. On the other hand, if the athlete gains weight that means that he is consuming too many calories. Thus, body weight is a great indicator of caloric intake
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What is glycogen loading?
Glycogen loading is a nutritional strategy that aims at increasing the amount of glycogen stored in the body. To maximize glycogen storage, there has to be a change both exercise and diet. A way of doing so is by following the classic method whereby intense exercise is done during three days accompanied by a diet extremely low in carbohydrate; then, during the next three days, rest is followed with a high carbohydrate intake
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How does iron-deficiency anemia affect athletic performance?
Iron is a key mineral required for the production of red blood cells, oxygen transport, and energy production. All of these biological processes are paramount to attain the highest possible athletic performance. Having a deficiency of this mineral, in this case through iron-deficiency anemia, is detrimental when it comes to athletic performance
96
How much fluid should an athlete drink after exercise?
An athlete should drink as much as three cups of fluids per pound of body weight lost during exercise
97
List five specific nutrients that athletes need and the appropriate food sources from which these nutrients can be obtained.
For the most part, since athletes tend to eat than a typical person, they tend to meet all their nutritional needs, but. In some cases, misinformed athletes may make the wrong food choices and end up with some form of deficiency that can degrade their performance. The following is a list of nutrients, as well as appropriate food sources, that an athlete needs to make sure to consume:
Carbohydrates
Some food sources are bananas, grapes, whole-wheat toast, whole grain bagels, and spaghetti, among many others
Fats
Canola, olive oil (both of them as part of the monounsaturated fat source), butter, and margarine
Protein
Protein
Beef, beans, eggs, fat-free milk, and turkey meat
Iron
Spinach, seafood (i.e., clams, tuna, oysters, or salmon), and beef or chicken liver
Calcium
Fat-free milk, low-fat yogurt, and the wide gamma of dairy products
